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ANNEX

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Note:

Before using any of the following test methods to test a multi-constituent substance (MCS), a substance of unknown or variable composition, complex reaction product or biological material (UVCB), or a mixture and where its applicability for the testing of MCS, UVCB, or mixtures is not indicated in the respective test method, it should be considered whether the method is adequate for the intended regulatory purpose.

If the test method is used for the testing of a MCS, UVCB or mixture, sufficient information on its composition should be made available, as far as possible, e.g. by the chemical identity of its constituents, their quantitative occurrence, and relevant properties of the constituents.

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PART 0

INTERNATIONAL TEST METHODS RECOGNISED AS BEING APPROPRIATE FOR GENERATING INFORMATION ON INTRINSIC PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES FOR THE PURPOSES OF REGULATION (EC) No 1907/2006

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TABLE 1: TEST METHODS FOR PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SUBSTANCE

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TABLE 2: TEST METHODS FOR TOXICOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

TABLE 3: TEST METHODS FOR ECOTOXICOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

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PART A: METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.1.	MELTING/FREEZING TEMPERATURE
A.2.	BOILING TEMPERATURE
A.3.	RELATIVE DENSITY
A.4.	VAPOUR PRESSURE
A.5.	SURFACE TENSION
A.6.	WATER SOLUBILITY
A.8.	PARTITION COEFFICIENT
A.9.	FLASH-POINT
A.10.	FLAMMABILITY (SOLIDS)
A.11.	FLAMMABILITY (GASES)
A.12.	FLAMMABILITY (CONTACT WITH WATER)
A.13.	PYROPHORIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
A.14.	EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES
A.15.	AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE (LIQUIDS AND GASES)
A.16.	RELATIVE SELF-IGNITION TEMPERATURE FOR SOLIDS
A.17.	OXIDISING PROPERTIES (SOLIDS)
A.18.	NUMBER — AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF POLYMERS
A.19.	LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT CONTENT OF POLYMERS
A.20.	SOLUTION/EXTRACTION BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMERS IN WATER
A.21.	OXIDISING PROPERTIES (LIQUIDS)
A.22.	LENGTH WEIGHTED GEOMETRIC MEAN DIAMETER OF FIBRES
A.23.	PARTITION COEFFICIENT (1-OCTANOL/WATER): SLOW-STIRRING METHOD
A.24.	PARTITION COEFFICIENT (N-OCTANOL/WATER), HIGH PERFORMANCELIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC) METHOD
A.25.	DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS IN WATER (TITRATION METHOD — SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHOD — CONDUCTOMETRIC METHOD)

A.1.   MELTING/FREEZING TEMPERATURE

1.   METHOD

The majority of the methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in references (2) and (3).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The methods and devices described are to be applied for the determination of the melting temperature of substances, without any restriction with respect to their degree of purity.

The selection of the method is dependent on the nature of the substance to be tested. In consequence the limiting factor will be according to, whether or not the substance can be pulverised easily, with difficulty, or not at all.

For some substances, the determination of the freezing or solidification temperature is more appropriate and the standards for these determinations have also been included in this method.

Where, due to the particular properties of the substance, none of the above parameters can be conveniently measured, a pour point may be appropriate.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The melting temperature is defined as the temperature at which the phase transition from solid to liquid state occurs at atmospheric pressure and this temperature ideally corresponds to the freezing temperature.

As the phase transition of many substances takes place over a temperature range, it is often described as the melting range.

Conversion of units (K to oC)

t = T - 273,15

t

:

Celsius temperature, degree Celsius (oC)

T

:

thermodynamic temperature, kelvin (K)

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

Some calibration substances are listed in the references (4).

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

The temperature (temperature range) of the phase transition from the solid to the liquid state or from the liquid to the solid state is determined. In practice while heating/cooling a sample of the test substance at atmospheric pressure the temperatures of the initial melting/freezing and the final stage of melting/freezing are determined. Five types of methods are described, namely capillary method, hot stage methods, freezing temperature determinations, methods of thermal analysis, and determination of the pour point (as developed for petroleum oils).

In certain cases, it may be convenient to measure the freezing temperature in place of the melting temperature.

1.4.1.   Capillary method

1.4.1.1.   Melting temperature devices with liquid bath

A small amount of the finely ground substance is placed in a capillary tube and packed tightly. The tube is heated, together with a thermometer, and the temperature rise is adjusted to less than about 1 K/min during the actual melting. The initial and final melting temperatures are determined.

1.4.1.2.   Melting temperature devices with metal block

As described under 1.4.1.1, except that the capillary tube and the thermometer are situated in a heated metal block, and can be observed through holes in the block.

1.4.1.3.   Photocell detection

The sample in the capillary tube is heated automatically in a metal cylinder. A beam of light is directed through the substance, by way of a hole in the cylinder, to a precisely calibrated photocell. The optical properties of most substances change from opaque to transparent when they are melting. The intensity of light reaching the photocell increases and sends a stop signal to the digital indicator reading out the temperature of a platinum resistance thermometer located in the heating chamber. This method is not suitable for some highly coloured substances.

1.4.2.   Hot stages

1.4.2.1.   Kofler hot bar

The Kofler hot bar uses two pieces of metal of different thermal conductivity, heated electrically, with the bar designed so that the temperature gradient is almost linear along its length. The temperature of the hot bar can range from 283 to 573 K with a special temperature-reading device including a runner with a pointer and tab designed for the specific bar. In order to determine a melting temperature, the substance is laid, in a thin layer, directly on the surface of the hot bar. In a few seconds a sharp dividing line between the fluid and solid phase develops. The temperature at the dividing line is read by adjusting the pointer to rest at the line.

1.4.2.2.   Melt microscope

Several microscope hot stages are in use for the determination of melting temperatures with very small quantities of material. In most of the hot stages the temperature is measured with a sensitive thermocouple but sometimes mercury thermometers are used. A typical microscope hot stage melting temperature apparatus has a heating chamber which contains a metal plate upon which the sample is placed on a slide. The centre of the metal plate contains a hole permitting the entrance of light from the illuminating mirror of the microscope. When in use, the chamber is closed by a glass plate to exclude air from the sample area.

The heating of the sample is regulated by a rheostat. For very precise measurements on optically anisotropic substances, polarised light may be used.

1.4.2.3.   Meniscus method

This method is specifically used for polyamides.

The temperature at which the displacement of a meniscus of silicone oil, enclosed between a hot stage and a cover-glass supported by the polyamide test specimen, is determined visually.

1.4.3.   Method to determine the freezing temperature

The sample is placed in a special test tube and placed in an apparatus for the determination of the freezing temperature. The sample is stirred gently and continuously during cooling and the temperature is measured at suitable intervals. As soon as the temperature remains constant for a few readings this temperature (corrected for thermometer error) is recorded as the freezing temperature.

Supercooling must be avoided by maintaining equilibrium between the solid and the liquid phases.

1.4.4.   Thermal analysis

1.4.4.1   Differential thermal analysis (DTA)

This technique records the difference in temperatures between the substance and a reference material as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic (melting) or exothermic (freezing) departure from the base line of the temperature record.

1.4.4.2   Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

This technique records the difference in energy inputs into a substance and a reference material, as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. This energy is the energy necessary to establish zero temperature difference between the substance and the reference material. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic (melting) or exothermic (freezing) departure from the base line of the heat flow record.

1.4.5.   Pour point

This method was developed for use with petroleum oils and is suitable for use with oily substances with low melting temperatures.

After preliminary heating, the sample is cooled at a specific rate and examined at intervals of 3 K for flow characteristics. The lowest temperature at which movement of the substance is observed is recorded as the pour point.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The applicability and accuracy of the different methods used for the determination of the melting temperature/melting range are listed in the following table:

TABLE: APPLICABILITY OF THE METHODS

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

The procedures of nearly all the test methods have been described in international and national standards (see Appendix 1).

1.6.1.   Methods with capillary tube

When subjected to a slow temperature rise, finely pulverised substances usually show the stages of melting shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

Text of image

During the determination of the melting temperature, the temperatures are recorded at the beginning of the melting and at the final stage.

1.6.1.1.   Melting temperature devices with liquid bath apparatus

Figure 2 shows a type of standardised melting temperature apparatus made of glass (JIS K 0064); all specifications are in millimeters.

Figure 2

Text of image

Bath liquid:

A suitable liquid should be chosen. The choice of the liquid depends upon the melting temperature to be determined, e.g. liquid paraffin for melting temperatures no higher than 473 K, silicone oil for melting temperatures no higher than 573 K.

For melting temperatures above 523 K, a mixture consisting of three parts sulphuric acid and two parts potassium sulphate (in mass ratio) can be used. Suitable precautions should be taken if a mixture such as this is used.

Thermometer:

Only those thermometers should be used which fulfil the requirements of the following or equivalent standards:

ASTM E 1-71, DIN 12770, JIS K 8001.

Procedure:

The dry substance is finely pulverised in a mortar and is put into the capillary tube, fused at one end, so that the filling level is approximately 3 mm after being tightly packed. To obtain a uniform packed sample, the capillary tube should be dropped from a height of approximately 700 mm through a glass tube vertically onto a watch glass.

The filled capillary tube is placed in the bath so that the middle part of the mercury bulb of the thermometer touches the capillary tube at the part where the sample is located. Usually the capillary tube is introduced into the apparatus about 10 K below the melting temperature.

The bath liquid is heated so that the temperature rise is approximately 3 K/min. The liquid should be stirred. At about 10 K below the expected melting temperature the rate of temperature rise is adjusted to a maximum of 1 K/min.

Calculation:

The calculation of the melting temperature is as follows:

T = TD + 0,00016 (TD - TE) n

where:

T

=

corrected melting temperature in K

TD

=

temperature reading of thermometer D in K

TE

=

temperature reading of thermometer E in K

n

=

number of graduations of mercury thread on thermometer D at emergent stem.

1.6.1.2.   Melting temperature devices with metal block

Apparatus:

This consists of:

Thermometer:

See standards mentioned in 1.6.1.1. Thermoelectrical measuring devices with comparable accuracy are also applicable.

Figure 3

Text of image

1.6.1.3.   Photocell detection

Apparatus and procedure:

The apparatus consists of a metal chamber with automated heating system. Three capillary are filled accordingly to 1.6.1.1 and placed in the oven.

Several linear increases of temperature are available for calibrating the apparatus and the suitable temperature rise is electrically adjusted at a pre-selected constant and linear rate. recorders show the actual oven temperature and the temperature of the substance in the capillary tubes.

1.6.2.   Hot stages

1.6.2.1.   Kofler hot bar

See Appendix.

1.6.2.2.   Melt microscope

See Appendix.

1.6.2.3.   Meniscus method (polyamides)

See Appendix.

The heating rate through the melting temperature should be less than 1 K/min.

1.6.3.   Methods for the determination of the freezing temperature

See Appendix.

1.6.4.   Thermal analysis

1.6.4.1.   Differential thermal analysis

See Appendix.

1.6.4.2.   Differential scanning calorimetry

See Appendix.

1.6.5.   Determination of the pour point

See Appendix.

2.   DATA

A thermometer correction is necessary in some cases.

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

The mean of at least two measurements which are in the range of the estimated accuracy (see tables) is reported as the melting temperature.

If the difference between the temperature at the beginning and at the final stage of melting is within the limits of the accuracy of the method, the temperature at the final stage of melting is taken as the melting temperature; otherwise the two temperatures are reported.

If the substance decomposes or sublimes before the melting temperature is reached, the temperature at which the effect is observed shall be reported.

All information and remarks relevant for the interpretation of results have to be reported, especially with regard to impurities and physical state of the substance.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

For additional technical details, the following standards may be consulted for example.

1.   Capillary methods

1.1.   Melting temperature devices with liquid bath

1.2.   Melting temperature devices with metal block

2.   Hot stages

2.1.   Kofler hot bar

2.2.   Melt microscope

2.3.   Meniscus method (polyamides)

3.   Methods for the determination of the freezing temperature

4.   Thermal analysis

4.1.   Differential thermal analysis

4.2.   Differential scanning calorimetry

5.   Determination of the pour point

A.2.   BOILING TEMPERATURE

1.   METHOD

The majority of the methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in references (2) and (3).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The methods and devices described here can be applied to liquid and low melting substances, provided that these do not undergo chemical reaction below the boiling temperature (for example: auto-oxidation, rearrangement, degradation, etc.). The methods can be applied to pure and to impure liquid substances.

Emphasis is put on the methods using photocell detection and thermal analysis, because these methods allow the determination of melting as well as boiling temperatures. Moreover, measurements can be performed automatically.

The ‘dynamic method’ has the advantage that it can also be applied to the determination of the vapour pressure and it is not necessary to correct the boiling temperature to the normal pressure (101,325 kPa) because the normal pressure can be adjusted during the measurement by a manostat.

Remarks:

The influence of impurities on the determination of the boiling temperature depends greatly upon the nature of the impurity. When there are volatile impurities in the sample, which could affect the results, the substance may be purified.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The normal boiling temperature is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is 101,325 kPa.

If the boiling temperature is not measured at normal atmospheric pressure, the temperature dependence of the vapour pressure can be described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation:

where:

p

=

the vapour pressure of the substance in pascals

Δ Hv

=

its heat of vaporisation in J mol-1

R

=

the universal molar gas constant = 8,314  J mol-1 K-1

T

=

thermodynamic temperature in K

The boiling temperature is stated with regard to the ambient pressure during the measurement.

Conversions

Pressure (units: kPa)

100 kPa

=

1 bar = 0,1 MPa (‘bar’ is still permissible but not recommended)

133 Pa

=

1 mm Hg = 1 Torr (the units ‘mm Hg’ and ‘Torr’ are not permitted)

1 atm

=

standard atmosphere = 101 325 Pa (the unit ‘atm’ is not permitted)

Temperature (units: K)

t = T - 273,15

t

:

Celsius temperature, degree Celsius (oC)

T

:

thermodynamic temperature, kelvin (K)

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

Some calibration substances can be found in the methods listed in the Appendix.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Five methods for the determination of the boiling temperature (boiling range) are based on the measurement of the boiling temperature, two others are based on thermal analysis.

1.4.1.   Determination by use of the ebulliometer

Ebulliometers were originally developed for the determination of the molecular weight by boiling temperature elevation, but they are also suited for exact boiling temperature measurements. A very simple apparatus is described in ASTM D 1120-72 (see Appendix). The liquid is heated in this apparatus under equilibrium conditions at atmospheric pressure until it is boiling.

1.4.2.   Dynamic method

This method involves the measurement of the vapour recondensation temperature by means of an appropriate thermometer in the reflux while boiling. The pressure can be varied in this method.

1.4.3.   Distillation method for boiling temperature

This method involves distillation of the liquid and measurement of the vapour recondensation temperature and determination of the amount of distillate.

1.4.4.   Method according to Siwoloboff

A sample is heated in a sample tube, which is immersed in a liquid in a heat-bath. A fused capillary, containing an air bubble in the lower part, is dipped in the sample tube.

1.4.5.   Photocell detection

Following the principle according to Siwoloboff, automatic photo-electrical measurement is made using rising bubbles.

1.4.6.   Differential thermal analysis

This technique records the difference in temperatures between the substance and a reference material as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic departure (boiling) from the base line of the temperature record.

1.4.7.   Differential scanning calorimetry

This technique records the difference in energy inputs into a substance and a reference material as a function of temperature, while the substance and reference material are subjected to the same controlled temperature programme. This energy is the energy necessary to establish zero temperature difference between the substance and the reference material. When the sample undergoes a transition involving a change of enthalpy, that change is indicated by an endothermic departure (boiling) from the base line of the heat flow record.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The applicability and accuracy of the different methods used for the determination of the boiling temperature/boiling range are listed in table 1.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

The procedures of some test methods have been described in international and national standards (see Appendix).

1.6.1.   Ebulliometer

See Appendix.

1.6.2.   Dynamic method

See test method A.4 for the determination of the vapour pressure.

The boiling temperature observed with an applied pressure of 101,325 kPa is recorded.

1.6.3.   Distillation process (boiling range)

See Appendix.

1.6.4.   Method according to Siwoloboff

The sample is heated in a melting temperature apparatus in a sample tube, with a diameter of approximately 5 mm (figure 1).

Figure 1 shows a type of standardised melting and boiling temperature apparatus (JIS K 0064) (made of glass, all specifications in millimetres).

Figure 1

Text of image

A capillary tube (boiling capillary) which is fused about 1 cm above the lower end is placed in the sample tube. The level to which the test substance is added is such that the fused section of the capillary is below the surface of the liquid. The sample tube containing the boiling capillary is fastened either to the thermometer with a rubber band or is fixed with a support from the side (see figure 2).

The bath liquid is chosen according to boiling temperature. At temperatures up to 573 K, silicone oil can be used. Liquid paraffin may only be used up to 473 K. The heating of the bath liquid should be adjusted to a temperature rise of 3 K/min at first. The bath liquid must be stirred. At about 10 K below the expected boiling temperature, the heating is reduced so that the rate of temperature rise is less than 1 K/min. Upon approach of the boiling temperature, bubbles begin to emerge rapidly from the boiling capillary.

The boiling temperature is that temperature when, on momentary cooling, the string of bubbles stops and fluid suddenly starts rising in the capillary. The corresponding thermometer reading is the boiling temperature of the substance.

In the modified principle (figure 3) the boiling temperature is determined in a melting temperature capillary. It is stretched to a fine point about 2 cm in length (a) and a small amount of the sample is sucked up. The open end of the fine capillary is closed by melting, so that a small air bubble is located at the end. While heating in the melting temperature apparatus (b), the air bubble expands. The boiling temperature corresponds to the temperature at which the substance plug reaches the level of the surface of the bath liquid (c).

1.6.5.   Photocell detection

The sample is heated in a capillary tube inside a heated metal block.

A light beam is directed, via suitable holes in the block, through the substance onto a precisely calibrated photocell.

During the increase of the sample temperature, single air bubbles emerge from the boiling capillary. When the boiling temperature is reached the number of bubbles increases greatly. This causes a change in the intensity of light, recorded by a photocell, and gives a stop signal to the indicator reading out the temperature of a platinum resistance thermometer located in the block.

This method is especially useful because it allows determinations below room temperature down to 253,15 K (– 20 oC) without any changes in the apparatus. The instrument merely has to be placed in a cooling bath.

1.6.6.   Thermal analysis

1.6.6.1.   Differential thermal analysis

See Appendix.

1.6.6.2.   Differential scanning calorimetry

See Appendix.

2.   DATA

At small deviations from the normal pressure (max. ± 5 kPa) the boiling temperatures are normalised to Tn by means of the following number-value equation by Sidney Young:

Tn = T + (fT × Δp)

where:

Δp

=

(101,325 - p) [note sign]

P

=

pressure measurement in kPa

fT

=

rate of change of boiling temperature with pressure in K/kPa

T

=

measured boiling temperature in K

Tn

=

boiling temperature corrected to normal pressure in K

The temperature-correction factors, fT, and equations for their approximation are included in the international and national standards mentioned above for many substances.

For example, the DIN 53171 method mentions the following rough corrections for solvents included in paints:

3.   REPORTING

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

The mean of at least two measurements which are in the range of the estimated accuracy (see table 1) is reported as the boiling temperature.

The measured boiling temperatures and their mean shall be stated and the pressure(s) at which the measurements were made shall be reported in kPa. The pressure should preferably be close to normal atmospheric pressure.

All information and remarks relevant for the interpretation of results have to be reported, especially with regard to impurities and physical state of the substance.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

For additional technical details, the following standards may be consulted for example.

1.   Ebulliometer

2.   Distillation process (boiling range)

3.   Differential thermal analysis and differential scanning calorimetry

A.3.   RELATIVE DENSITY

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The full description of this test method has been deleted. The equivalent international test method, or other applicable test methods for the endpoint in question, appear in Table 1 of Part 0.

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A.4.   VAPOUR PRESSURE

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The full description of this test method has been deleted. The equivalent international test method, or other applicable test methods for the endpoint in question, appear in Table 1 of Part 0.

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A.5.   SURFACE TENSION

1.   METHOD

The methods described are based on the OECD Test Guideline (1). The fundamental principles are given in reference (2).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The described methods are to be applied to the measurement of the surface tension of aqueous solutions.

It is useful to have preliminary information on the water solubility, the structure, the hydrolysis properties and the critical concentration for micelles formation of the substance before performing these tests.

The following methods are applicable to most chemical substances, without any restriction in respect to their degree of purity.

The measurement of the surface tension by the ring tensiometer method is restricted to aqueous solutions with a dynamic viscosity of less than approximately 200 mPa s.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The free surface enthalpy per unit of surface area is referred to as surface tension.

The surface tension is given as:

N/m (SI unit) or

mN/m (SI sub-unit)

1 N/m = 103 dynes/cm

1 mN/m = 1 dyne/cm in the obsolete cgs system

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Reference substances do not need to be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They should primarily serve to check the performance of the method from time to time and to allow comparison with results from other methods.

Reference substances which cover a wide range of surface tensions are given in references 1 and 3.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHODS

The methods are based on the measurement of the maximum force which is necessary to exert vertically, on a stirrup or a ring in contact with the surface of the liquid being examined placed in a measuring cup, in order to separate it from this surface, or on a plate, with an edge in contact with the surface, in order to draw up the film that has formed.

Substances which are soluble in water at least at a concentration of 1 mg/l are tested in aqueous solution at a single concentration.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

These methods are capable of greater precision than is likely to be required for environmental assessment.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

A solution of the substance is prepared in distilled water. The concentration of this solution should be 90 % of the saturation solubility of the substance in water; when this concentration exceeds 1 g/l, a concentration of 1 g/l is used for testing. Substances with water solubility lower than 1 mg/l need not be tested.

1.6.1.   Plate method

See ISO 304 and NF T 73-060 (Surface active agents — determination of surface tension by drawing up liquid films).

1.6.2.   Stirrup method

See ISO 304 and NF T 73-060 (Surface active agents — determination of surface tension by drawing up liquid films).

1.6.3.   Ring method

See ISO 304 and NF T 73-060 (Surface active agents — determination of surface tension by drawing up liquid films).

1.6.4.   OECD harmonised ring method

1.6.4.1.   Apparatus

Commercially available tensiometers are adequate for this measurement. They consist of the following elements:

1.6.4.1.1.    Mobile sample table

The mobile sample table is used as a support for the temperature-controlled measurement vessel holding the liquid to be tested. Together with the force measuring system, it is mounted on a stand.

1.6.4.1.2.    Force measuring system

The force measuring system (see figure) is located above the sample table. The error of the force measurement shall not exceed ± 10-6 N, corresponding to an error limit of ± 0,1  mg in a mass measurement. In most cases, the measuring scale of commercially available tensiometers is calibrated in mN/m so that the surface tension can be read directly in mN/m with an accuracy of 0,1 mN/m.

1.6.4.1.3.    Measuring body (ring)

The ring is usually made of a platinum-iridium wire of about 0,4  mm thickness and a mean circumference of 60 mm. The wire ring is suspended horizontally from a metal pin and a wire mounting bracket to establish the connection to the force measuring system (see figure).

Figure

Measuring body

(All dimensions expressed in millimetres)

Text of image

1.6.4.1.4.    Measurement vessel

The measurement vessel holding the test solution to be measured shall be a temperature-controlled glass vessel. It shall be designed so that during the measurement the temperature of the test solution liquid and the gas phase above its surface remains constant and that the sample cannot evaporate. Cylindrical glass vessels having an inside diameter of not less than 45 mm are acceptable.

1.6.4.2.   Preparation of the apparatus

1.6.4.2.1.    Cleaning

Glass vessels shall be cleaned carefully. If necessary they shall be washed with hot chromo-sulphuric acid and subsequently with syrupy phosphoric acid (83 to 98 % by weight of H3PO4), thoroughly rinsed in tap water and finally washed with double-distilled water until a neutral reaction is obtained and subsequently dried or rinsed with part of the sample liquid to be measured.

The ring shall first be rinsed thoroughly in water to remove any substances which are soluble in water, briefly immersed in chromo-sulphuric acid, washed in double-distilled water until a neutral reaction is obtained and finally heated briefly above a methanol flame.

Note:

Contamination by substances which are not dissolved or destroyed by chromo-sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid, such as silicones, shall be removed by means of a suitable organic solvent.

1.6.4.2.2.    Calibration of the apparatus

The validation of the apparatus consists of verifying the zero point and adjusting it so that the indication of the instrument allows reliable determination in mN/m.

Mounting:

The apparatus shall be levelled, for instance by means of a spirit level on the tensiometer base, by adjusting the levelling screws in the base.

Zero point adjustment:

After mounting the ring on the apparatus and prior to immersion in the liquid, the tensiometer indication shall be adjusted to zero and the ring checked for parallelism to the liquid surface. For this purpose, the liquid surface can be used as a mirror.

Calibrations:

The actual test calibration can be accomplished by means of either of two procedures:

1.6.4.3.   Preparation of samples

Aqueous solutions shall be prepared of the substances to be tested, using the required concentrations in water, and shall not contain any non-dissolved substances.

The solution must be maintained at a constant temperature (± 0,5 oC). Since the surface tension of a solution in the measurement vessel alters over a period of time, several measurements shall be made at various times and a curve plotted showing surface tension as a function of time. When no further change occurs, a state of equilibrium has been reached.

Dust and gaseous contamination by other substances interfere with the measurement. The work shall therefore be carried out under a protective cover.

1.6.5.   Test conditions

The measurement shall be made at approximately 20 oC and shall be controlled to within ± 0,5 oC.

1.6.6.   Performance of test

The solutions to be measured shall be transferred to the carefully cleaned measurement vessel, taking care to avoid foaming, and subsequently the measurement vessel shall be placed onto the table of the test apparatus. The table-top with measurement vessel shall be raised until the ring is immersed below the surface of the solution to be measured. Subsequently, the table-top shall be lowered gradually and evenly (at a rate of approximately 0,5  cm/min) to detach the ring from the surface until the maximum force has been reached. The liquid layer attached to the ring must not separate from the ring. After completing the measurements, the ring shall be immersed below the surface again and the measurements repeated until a constant surface tension value is reached. The time from transferring the solution to the measurement vessel shall be recorded for each determination. Readings shall be taken at the maximum force required to detach the ring from the liquid surface.

2.   DATA

In order to calculate the surface tension, the value read in mN/m on the apparatus shall be first multiplied by the calibration factor Φa or Φb (depending on the calibration procedure used). This will yield a value which applies only approximately and therefore requires correction.

Harkins and Jordan (4) have empirically determined correction factors for surface-tension values measured by the ring method which are dependent on ring dimensions, the density of the liquid and its surface tension.

Since it is laborious to determine the correction factor for each individual measurement from the Harkins and Jordan tables, in order to calculate the surface tension for aqueous solutions the simplified procedure of reading the corrected surface-tension values directly from the table may be used. (Interpolation shall be used for readings ranging between the tabular values.)

This table has been compiled on the basis of the Harkins-Jordan correction. It is similar to that in the DIN Standard (DIN 53914) for water and aqueous solutions (density ρ = 1 g/cm3 and is for a commercially available ring having the dimensions R = 9,55  mm (mean ring radius) and r = 0,185  mm (ring wire radius). The table provides corrected values for surface-tension measurements taken after calibration with weights or calibration with water.

Alternatively, without the preceding calibration, the surface tension call can be calculated according to the following formula:

where:

F

=

the force measured on the dynamometer at the breakpoint of the film

R

=

the radius of the ring

f

=

the correction factor (1)

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Considering that distilled water has a surface tension of 72,75 mN/m at 20 oC, substances showing a surface tension lower than 60 mN/m under the conditions of this method should be regarded as being surface-active materials.

4.   REFERENCES

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A.6.   WATER SOLUBILITY

INTRODUCTION

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

REFERENCE CHEMICALS

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS

Test conditions

Preliminary test

Column elution method

Principle

Apparatus

Figure 1

Dimensions in mm

Figure 2

Figure 3

Procedure using a recirculating pump

Procedure using a levelling vessel

Flask method

Principle

Apparatus

Procedure

Analytical determinations

DATA AND REPORTING

Data

Column elution method

Flask method

Test Report

Column elution method

Flask method

LITERATURE:

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A.8.   PARTITION COEFFICIENT

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A.9.   FLASH-POINT

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A.10.   FLAMMABILITY (SOLIDS)

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A.11.   FLAMMABILITY (GASES)

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A.12.   FLAMMABILITY (CONTACT WITH WATER)

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A.13.   PYROPHORIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

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A.14.   EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

The method provides a scheme of testing to determine whether a solid or a pasty substance presents a danger of explosion when submitted to the effect of a flame (thermal sensitivity), or to shock or friction (sensitivity to mechanical stimuli), and whether a liquid substance presents a danger of explosion when submitted to the effect of a flame or shock.

The method comprises three parts:

The method yields data to assess the likelihood of initiating an explosion by means of certain common stimuli. The method is not intended to ascertain whether a substance is capable of exploding under any conditions.

The method is appropriate for determining whether a substance will present a danger of explosion (thermal and mechanical sensitivity) under the particular conditions specified in the directive. It is based on a number of types of apparatus which are widely used internationally (1) and which usually give meaningful results. It is recognised that the method is not definitive. Alternative apparatus to that specified may be used provided that it is internationally recognised and the results can be adequately correlated with those from the specified apparatus.

The tests need not be performed when available thermodynamic information (e.g. heat of formation, heat of decomposition) and/or absence of certain reactive groups (2) in the structural formula establishes beyond reasonable doubt that the substance is incapable of rapid decomposition with evolution of gases or release of heat (i.e. the material does not present any risk of explosion). A test of mechanical sensitivity with respect to friction is not required for liquids.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Explosive:

Substances which may explode under the effect of flame or which are sensitive to shock or friction in the specified apparatus (or are more mechanically sensitive than 1,3 -dinitrobenzene in alternative apparatus).

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

1,3-dinitrobenzene, technical crystalline product sieved to pass 0,5  mm, for the friction and shock methods.

Perhydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX, hexogen, cyclonite — CAS 121-82-4), recrystallised from aqueous cyclohexanone, wet-sieved through a 250 μm and retained on a 150 μm sieve and dried at 103 ± 2 oC (for four hours) for the second series of friction and shock tests.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

Preliminary tests are necessary to establish safe conditions for the performance of the three tests of sensitivity.

1.4.1.   Safety-in-handling tests (3)

For safety reasons, before performing the main tests, very small samples (circa 10 mg) of the substance are subjected to heating without confinement in a gas flame, to shock in any convenient form of apparatus and to friction by the use of a mallet against an anvil or any form of friction machine. The objective is to ascertain if the substance is so sensitive and explosive that the prescribed sensitivity tests, particularly that of thermal sensitivity, should be performed with special precautions so as to avoid injury to the operator.

1.4.2.   Thermal sensitivity

The method involves heating the substance in a steel tube, closed by orifice plates with differing diameters of hole, to determine whether the substance is liable to explode under conditions of intense heat and defined confinement.

1.4.3.   Mechanical sensitivity (shock)

The method involves subjecting the substance to the shock from a specified mass dropped from a specified height.

1.4.4.   Mechanical sensitivity (friction)

The method involves subjecting solid or pasty substances to friction between standard surfaces under specified conditions of load and relative motion.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

Not stated.

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF METHOD

1.6.1.   Thermal sensitivity (effect of a flame)

1.6.1.1.   Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a non-reusable steel tube with its re-usable closing device (figure 1), installed in a heating and protective device. Each tube is deep-drawn from sheet steel (see Appendix) and has an internal diameter of 24 mm, a length of 75 mm and wall thickness of 0,5  mm. The tubes are flanged at the open end to enable them to be closed by the orifice plate assembly. This consists of a pressure-resistant orifice plate, with a central hole, secured firmly to a tube using a two-part screw joint (nut and threaded collar). The nut and threaded collar are made from chromium-manganese steel (see Appendix) which is spark-free up to 800 oC. The orifice plates are 6 mm thick, made from heat-resistant steel (see Appendix), and are available with a range of diameters of opening.

1.6.1.2.   Test conditions

Normally the substance is tested as received although in certain cases, e.g. if pressed, cast or otherwise condensed, it may be necessary to test the substance after crushing.

For solids, the mass of material to be used in each test is determined using a two-stage dry run procedure. A tared tube is filled with 9 cm3 of substance and the substance tamped with 80 N force applied to the total cross-section of the tube. For reasons of safety or in cases where the physical form of the sample can be changed by compression other filling procedures may be used; e.g. if the substance is very friction sensitive then tamping is not appropriate. If the material is compressible then more is added and tamped until the tube is filled to 55 mm from the top. The total mass used to fill the tube to the 55 mm level is determined and two further increments, each tamped with 80 N force, are added. Material is then either added with tamping, or taken out, as required, to leave the tube filled to a level 15 mm from the top. A second dry run is performed, starting with a tamped quantity of a third of the total mass found in the first dry run. Two more of these increments are added with 80 N tamping and the level of the substance in the tube adjusted to 15 mm from the top by addition or subtraction of material as required. The amount of solid determined in the second dry run is used for each trial; filling being performed in three equal amounts, each compressed to 9 cm3 by whatever force is necessary. (This may be facilitated by the use of spacing rings).

Liquids and gels are loaded into the tube to a height of 60 mm taking particular care with gels to prevent the formation of voids. The threaded collar is slipped onto the tube from below, the appropriate orifice plate is inserted and the nut tightened after applying some molybdenum disulphide based lubricant. It is essential to check that none of the substance is trapped between the flange and the plate, or in the threads.

Heating is provided by propane taken from an industrial cylinder, fitted with a pressure regulator (60 to 70 mbar), through a meter and evenly distributed (as indicated by visual observation of the flames from the burners) by a manifold to four burners. The burners are located around the test chamber as shown in figure 1. The four burners have a combined consumption of about 3,2 litres of propane per minute. Alternative fuel gases and burners may be used but the heating rate must be as specified in figure 3. For all apparatus, the heating rate must be checked periodically using tubes filled with dibutyl phthalate as indicated in figure 3.

1.6.1.3.   Performance of the tests

Each test is performed until either the tube is fragmented or the tube has been heated for five minutes. A test resulting in the fragmentation of the tube into three or more pieces, which in some cases may be connected to each other by narrow strips of metal as illustrated in figure 2, is evaluated as giving an explosion. A test resulting in fewer fragments or no fragmentation is regarded as not giving an explosion.

A series of three tests with a 6,0  mm diameter orifice plate is first performed and, if no explosions are obtained, a second series of three tests is performed with a 2,0  mm diameter orifice plate. If an explosion occurs during either test series then no further tests are required.

1.6.1.4.   Evaluation

The test result is considered positive if an explosion occurs in either of the above series of tests.

1.6.2.   Mechanical sensitivity (shock)

1.6.2.1.   Apparatus (figure 4)

The essential parts of a typical fall hammer apparatus are a cast steel block with base, anvil, column, guides, drop weights, release device and a sample holder. The steel anvil 100 mm (diameter) × 70 mm (height) is screwed to the top of a steel block 230 mm (length) × 250 mm (width) × 200 mm (height) with a cast base 450 mm (length) × 450 mm (width) × 60 mm (height). A column, made from seamless drawn steel tube, is secured in a holder screwed on to the back of the steel block. Four screws anchor the apparatus to a solid concrete block 60 × 60 × 60 cm such that the guide rails are absolutely vertical and the drop weight falls freely. 5 and 10 kg weights, made from solid steel, are available for use. The striking head of each weight is of hardened steel, HRC 60 to 63, and has a minimum diameter of 25 mm.

The sample under test is enclosed in a shock device consisting of two coaxial solid steel cylinders, one above the other, in a hollow cylindrical steel guide ring. The solid steel cylinders should be of 10 (- 0,003 , - 0,005 ) mm diameter and 10 mm height and have polished surfaces, rounded edges (radius of curvature 0,5  mm) and a hardness of HRC 58 to 65. The hollow cylinder must have an external diameter of 16 mm, a polished bore of 10 (+ 0,005 , + 0,010 ) mm and a height of 13 mm. The shock device is assembled on an intermediate anvil (26 mm diameter and 26 mm height) made of steel and centred by a ring with perforations to allow escape of fumes.

1.6.2.2.   Test conditions

The sample volume should be 40 mm3, or a volume to suit any alternative apparatus. Solid substances should be tested in the dry state and prepared as follows:

Substances normally supplied as pastes should be tested in the dry state where possible or, in any case, following removal of the maximum possible amount of diluent. Liquid substances are tested with a 1 mm gap between the upper and lower steel cylinders.

1.6.2.3.   Performance of the tests

A series of six tests are performed dropping the 10 kg mass from 0,40  m (40 J). If an explosion is obtained during the six tests at 40 J, a further series of six tests, dropping a 5 kg mass from 0,15  m (7,5  J), must be performed. In other apparatus, the sample is compared with the chosen reference substance using an established procedure (e.g. up-and-down technique etc.).

1.6.2.4.   Evaluation

The test result is considered positive if an explosion (bursting into flame and/or a report is equivalent to explosion) occurs at least once in any of the tests with the specified shock apparatus or the sample is more sensitive than 1,3-dinitrobenzene or RDX in an alternative shock test.

1.6.3.   Mechanical sensitivity (friction)

1.6.3.1.   Apparatus (figure 5)

The friction apparatus consists of a cast steel base plate on which is mounted the friction device. This consists of a fixed porcelain peg and moving porcelain plate. The porcelain plate is held in a carriage which runs in two guides. The carriage is connected to an electric motor via a connecting rod, an eccentric cam and suitable gearing such that the porcelain plate is moved, once only, back and forth beneath the porcelain peg for a distance of 10 mm. The porcelain peg may be loaded with, for example, 120 or 360 newtons.

The flat porcelain plates are made from white technical porcelain (roughness 9 to 32 μm) and have the dimensions 25 mm (length) × 25 mm (width) × 5 mm (height). The cylindrical porcelain peg is also made of white technical porcelain and is 15 mm long, has a diameter of 10 mm and roughened spherical end surfaces with a radius of curvature of 10 mm.

1.6.3.2.   Test conditions

The sample volume should be 10 mm3 or a volume to suit any alternative apparatus.

Solid substances are tested in the dry state and prepared as follows:

Substances normally supplied as pastes should be tested in the dry state where possible. If the substance cannot be prepared in the dry state, the paste (following removal of the maximum possible amount of diluent) is tested as a 0,5  mm thick, 2 mm wide, 10 mm long film, prepared with a former.

1.6.3.3.   Performance of the tests

The porcelain peg is brought onto the sample under test and the load applied. When carrying out the test, the sponge marks of the porcelain plate must lie transversely to the direction of the movement. Care must be taken that the peg rests on the sample, that sufficient test material lies under the peg and also that the plate moves correctly under the peg. For pasty substances, a 0,5  mm thick gauge with a 2 × 10 mm slot is used to apply the substance to the plate. The porcelain plate has to move 10 mm forwards and backwards under the porcelain peg in a time of 0,44 seconds. Each part of the surface of the plate and peg must only be used once; the two ends of each peg will serve for two trials and the two surfaces of a plate will each serve for three trials.

A series of six tests are performed with a 360 N loading. If a positive event is obtained during these six tests, a further series of six tests must be performed with a 120 N loading. In other apparatus, the sample is compared with the chosen reference substance using an established procedure (e.g. up-and-down technique, etc.).

1.6.3.4.   Evaluation

The test result is considered positive if an explosion (crepitation and/or a report or bursting into flame are equivalent to explosion) occurs at least once in any of the tests with the specified friction apparatus or satisfies the equivalent criteria in an alternative friction test.

2.   DATA

In principle, a substance is considered to present a danger of explosion in the sense of the directive if a positive result is obtained in the thermal, shock or friction sensitivity test.

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report shall, if possible, include the following information:

3.2.   INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS

The test report should mention any results which are considered false, anomalous or unrepresentative. If any of the results should be discounted, an explanation and the results of any alternative or supplementary testing should be given. Unless an anomalous result can be explained, it must be accepted at face value and used to classify the substance accordingly.

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Example of material specification for thermal sensitivity test (see DIN 1623)

Figure 1

Thermal sensitivity test apparatus

(all dimensions in millimetres)

Text of image

Figure 2

Thermal sensitivity test

(example of fragmentation)

Text of image

Figure 3

Heating rate calibration for thermal sensitivity test

Text of image

Temperature/time curve obtained on heating dibutyl phtalate (27 cm3) in a closed (1,5  mm orifice plate) tube using a propane flow rate of 3,2 litre/minute. The temperature is measured with a 1 mm diameter stainless steel sheathed chromel/alumel thermocouple, placed centrally 43 mm below the rim of the tube. The heating rate between 135 oC and 285 oC should be between 185 and 215 K/minute.

Figure 4

Shock test apparatus

(all dimensions in millimetres)

Text of image

Figure 4

Continued

Text of image

Figure 5

Friction sensitivity apparatus

Text of image

A.15.   AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE (LIQUIDS AND GASES)

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A.16.   RELATIVE SELF-IGNITION TEMPERATURE FOR SOLIDS

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A.17.   OXIDISING PROPERTIES (SOLIDS)

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A.18.   NUMBER-AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF POLYMERS

1.   METHOD

This Gel Permeation Chromatographic method is a replicate of the OECD TG 118 (1996). The fundamental principles and further technical information are given in reference (1).

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Since the properties of polymers are so varied, it is impossible to describe one single method setting out precisely the conditions for separation and evaluation which cover all eventualities and specificities occurring in the separation of polymers. In particular, complex polymer systems are often not amenable to gel permeation chromatography (GPC). When GPC is not practicable, the molecular weight may be determined by means of other methods (see Appendix). In such cases, full details and justification should be given for the method used.

The method described is based on DIN Standard 55672 (1). Detailed information about how to carry out the experiments and how to evaluate the data can be found in this DIN Standard. In case modifications of the experimental conditions are necessary, these changes must be justified. Other standards may be used, if fully referenced. The method described uses polystyrene samples of known polydispersity for calibration and it may have to be modified to be suitable for certain polymers, e.g. water soluble and long-chain branched polymers.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The number-average molecular weight Mn and the weight average molecular weight Mw are determined using the following equations:

where,

Hi is the level of the detector signal from the baseline for the retention volume Vi,

Mi is the molecular weight of the polymer fraction at the retention volume Vi, and

n is the number of data points.

The breadth of the molecular weight distribution, which is a measure of the dispersity of the system, is given by the ratio Mw/Mn.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Since GPC is a relative method, calibration must be undertaken. Narrowly distributed, linearly constructed polystyrene standards with known average molecular weights Mn and Mw and a known molecular weight distribution are normally used for this. The calibration curve can only be used in the determination of the molecular weight of the unknown sample if the conditions for the separation of the sample and the standards have been selected in an identical manner.

A determined relationship between the molecular weight and elution volume is only valid under the specific conditions of the particular experiment. The conditions include, above all, the temperature, the solvent (or solvent mixture), the chromatography conditions and the separation column or system of columns.

The molecular weights of the sample determined in this way are relative values and are described as ‘polystyrene equivalent molecular weights’. This means that dependent on the structural and chemical differences between the sample and the standards, the molecular weights can deviate from the absolute values to a greater or a lesser degree. If other standards are used, e.g. polyethylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylic acid, the reason should be stated.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Both the molecular weight distribution of the sample and the average molecular weights (Mn, Mw) can be determined using GPC. GPC is a special type of liquid chromatography in which the sample is separated according to the hydrodynamic volumes of the individual constituents (2).

Separation is effected as the sample passes through a column which is filled with a porous material, typically an organic gel. Small molecules can penetrate the pores whereas large molecules are excluded. The path of the large molecules is thereby shorter and these are eluted first. The medium-sized molecules penetrate some of the pores and are eluted later. The smallest molecules, with a mean hydrodynamic radius smaller than the pores of the gel, can penetrate all of the pores. These are eluted last.

In an ideal situation, the separation is governed entirely by the size of the molecular species, but in practice it is difficult to avoid at least some absorption effects interfering. Uneven column packing and dead volumes can worsen the situation (2).

Detection is effected by, e.g. refractive index or UV-absorption, and yields a simple distribution curve. However, to attribute actual molecular weight values to the curve, it is necessary to calibrate the column by passing down polymers of known molecular weight and, ideally, of broadly similar structure e.g. various polystyrene standards. Typically a Gaussian curve results, sometimes distorted by a small tail to the low molecular weight side, the vertical axis indicating the quantity, by weight, of the various molecular weight species eluted, and the horizontal axis the log molecular weight.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The repeatability (Relative Standard Deviation: RSD) of the elution volume should be better than 0,3  %. The required repeatability of the analysis has to be ensured by correction via an internal standard if a chromatogram is evaluated time-dependently and does not correspond to the above mentioned criterion (1). The polydispersities are dependent on the molecular weights of the standards. In the case of polystyrene standards typical values are:

(Mp is the molecular weight of the standard at the peak maximum)

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparation of the standard polystyrene solutions

The polystyrene standards are dissolved by careful mixing in the chosen eluent. The recommendations of the manufacturer must be taken into account in the preparation of the solutions.

The concentrations of the standards chosen are dependent on various factors, e.g. injection volume, viscosity of the solution and sensitivity of the analytical detector. The maximum injection volume must be adapted to the length of the column, in order to avoid overloading. Typical injection volumes for analytical separations using GPC with a column of 30 cm × 7,8  mm are normally between 40 and 100 μl. Higher volumes are possible, but they should not exceed 250 μl. The optimal ratio between the injection volume and the concentration must be determined prior to the actual calibration of the column.

1.6.2.   Preparation of the sample solution

In principle, the same requirements apply to the preparation of the sample solutions. The sample is dissolved in a suitable solvent, e.g. tetrahydrofuran (THF), by shaking carefully. Under no circumstances should it be dissolved using an ultrasonic bath. When necessary, the sample solution is purified via a membrane filter with a pore size of between 0,2 and 2 μm.

The presence of undissolved particles must be recorded in the final report as these may be due to high molecular weight species. An appropriate method should be used to determine the percentage by weight of the undissolved particles. The solutions should be used within 24 hours.

1.6.3.   Apparatus

It must be ensured that the GPC system is inert with regard to the utilised solvents (e.g. by the use of steel capillaries for THF solvent).

1.6.4.   Injection and solvent delivery system

A defined volume of the sample solution is loaded onto the column either using an auto-sampler or manually in a sharply defined zone. Withdrawing or depressing the plunger of the syringe too quickly, if done manually, can cause changes in the observed molecular weight distribution. The solvent-delivery system should, as far as possible, be pulsation-free ideally incorporating a pulse dampener. The flow rate is of the order of 1 ml/min.

1.6.5.   Column

Depending on the sample, the polymer is characterised using either a simple column or several columns connected in sequence. A number of porous column materials with defined properties (e.g. pore size, exclusion limits) are commercially available. Selection of the separation gel or the length of the column is dependent on both the properties of the sample (hydrodynamic volumes, molecular weight distribution) and the specific conditions for separation such as solvent, temperature and flow rate (1)(2)(3).

1.6.6.   Theoretical plates

The column or the combination of columns used for separation must be characterised by the number of theoretical plates. This involves, in the case of THF as elution solvent, loading a solution of ethyl benzene or other suitable non-polar solute onto a column of known length. The number of theoretical plates is given by the following equation:

where,

N

=

the number of theoretical plates

Ve

=

the elution volume at the peak maximum

W

=

the baseline peak width

W1/2

=

the peak width at half height

1.6.7.   Separation efficiency

In addition to the number of theoretical plates, which is a quantity determining the bandwidth, a part is also played by the separation efficiency, this being determined by the steepness of the calibration curve. The separation efficiency of a column is obtained from the following relationship:

where,

Ve, Mx

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with the molecular weight Mx

Ve,(10.Mx)

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with a ten times greater molecular weight

The resolution of the system is commonly defined as follows:

where,

Ve1, Ve2

=

the elution volumes of the two polystyrene standards at the peak maximum

W1, W2

=

the peak widths at the base-line

M1, M2

=

the molecular weights at the peak maximum (should differ by a factor of 10)

The R-value for the column system should be greater than 1.7 (4).

1.6.8.   Solvents

All solvents must be of high purity (for THF purity of 99,5  % is used). The solvent reservoir (if necessary in an inert gas atmosphere) must be sufficiently large for the calibration of the column and several sample analyses. The solvent must be degassed before it is transported to the column via the pump.

1.6.9.   Temperature control

The temperature of the critical internal components (injection loop, columns, detector and tubing) should be constant and consistent with the choice of solvent.

1.6.10.   Detector

The purpose of the detector is to record quantitatively the concentration of sample eluted from the column. In order to avoid unnecessary broadening of peaks the cuvette volume of the detector cell must be kept as small as possible. It should not be larger than 10 μl except for light scattering and viscosity detectors. Differential refractometry is usually used for detection. However, if required by the specific properties of the sample or the elution solvent, other types of detectors can be used, e.g. UV/VIS, IR, viscosity detectors, etc.

2.   DATA AND REPORTING

2.1.   DATA

The DIN Standard (1) should be referred to for the detailed evaluation criteria as well as for the requirements relating to the collecting and processing of data.

For each sample, two independent experiments must be carried out. They have to be analysed individually.

Mn, Mw, Mw/Mn and Mp must be provided for every measurement. It is necessary to indicate explicitly that the measured values are relative values equivalent to the molecular weights of the standard used.

After determination of the retention volumes or the retention times (possibly corrected using an internal standard), log Mp values (Mp being the peak maxima of the calibration standard) are plotted against one of those quantities. At least two calibration points are necessary per molecular weight decade, and at least five measurement points are required for the total curve, which should cover the estimated molecular weight of the sample. The low molecular weight end-point of the calibration curve is defined by n-hexyl benzene or another suitable non-polar solute. The number average and the weight-average molecular weights are generally determined by means of electronic data processing, based on the formulas of section 1.2. In case manual digitisation is used, ASTM D 3536-91 can be consulted (3).

The distribution curve must be provided in the form of a table or as figure (differential frequency or sum percentages against log M). In the graphic representation, one molecular weight decade should be normally about 4 cm in width and the peak maximum should be about 8 cm in height. In the case of integral distribution curves the difference in the ordinate between 0 and 100 % should be about 10 cm.

2.2.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information:

2.2.1.   Test substance:

2.2.2.   Instrumentation:

2.2.3.   Calibration of the system:

2.2.4.   Evaluation:

3.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Examples of other methods for determination of number average molecular weight (Mn) for polymers

Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) is the preferred method for determination of Mn, especially when a set of standards are available, whose structure are comparable with the polymer structure. However, where there are practical difficulties in using GPC or there is already an expectation that the substance will fail a regulatory Mn criterion (and which needs confirming), alternative methods are available, such as:

1.   Use of colligative properties

involves measurement of boiling point elevation (ebullioscopy) or freezing point depression (cryoscopy) of a solvent, when the polymer is added. The method relies on the fact that the effect of the dissolved polymer on the boiling/freezing point of the liquid is dependent on the molecular weight of the polymer (1) (2).

Applicability, Mn < 20 000 .

involves the measurement of the vapour pressure of a chosen reference liquid before and after the addition of known quantities of polymer (1) (2).

Applicability, Mn < 20 000 (theoretically; in practice however of limited value).

relies on the principle of osmosis, i.e. the natural tendency of solvent molecules to pass through a semi-permeable membrane from a dilute to a concentrated solution to achieve equilibrium. In the test, the dilute solution is at zero concentration, whereas the concentrated solution contains the polymer. The effect of drawing solvent through the membrane causes a pressure differential that is dependent on the concentration and the molecular weight of the polymer (1) (3) (4).

Applicability, Mn between 20 000 - 200 000 .

involves comparison of the rate of evaporation of a pure solvent aerosol to at least three aerosols containing the polymer at different concentrations (1)(2)(4).

Applicability, Mn < 20 000 .

2.   End-group analysis

To use this method, knowledge of both the overall structure of the polymer and the nature of the chain terminating end groups is needed (which must be distinguishable from the main skeleton by, e.g. NMR or titration/derivatisation). The determination of the molecular concentration of the end groups present on the polymer can lead to a value for the molecular weight (7) (8) (9).

Applicability, Mn up to 50 000 (with decreasing reliability).

3.   References

A.19.   LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT CONTENT OF POLYMERS

1.   METHOD

This Gel Permeation Chromatographic method is a replicate of the OECD TG 119 (1996). The fundamental principles and further technical information are given in the references.

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Since the properties of polymers are so varied, it is impossible to describe one single method setting out precisely the conditions for separation and evaluation which cover all eventualities and specificities occurring in the separation of polymers. In particular, complex polymer systems are often not amenable to gel permeation chromatography (GPC). When GPC is not practicable, the molecular weight may be determined by means of other methods (see Appendix). In such cases, full details and justification should be given for the method used.

The method described is based on DIN Standard 55672 (1). Detailed information about how to carry out the experiments and how to evaluate the data can be found in this DIN Standard. In case modifications of the experimental conditions are necessary, these changes must be justified. Other standards may be used, if fully referenced. The method described uses polystyrene samples of known polydispersity for calibration and it may have to be modified to be suitable for certain polymers, e.g. water soluble and long-chain branched polymers.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Low molecular weight is arbitrarily defined as a molecular weight below 1 000 dalton.

The number-average molecular weight Mn and the weight average molecular weight Mw are determined using the following equations:

where,

Hi

=

the level of the detector signal from the baseline for the retention volume Vi,

Mi

=

the molecular weight of the polymer fraction at the retention volume Vi, and n is the number of data points

The breadth of the molecular weight distribution, which is a measure of the dispersity of the system, is given by the ratio Mw/Mn.

1.3.   REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

Since GPC is a relative method, calibration must be undertaken. Narrowly distributed, linearly constructed polystyrene standards with known average molecular weights Mn and Mw and a known molecular weight distribution are normally used for this. The calibration curve can only be used in the determination of the molecular weight of the unknown sample if the conditions for the separation of the sample and the standards have been selected in an identical manner.

A determined relationship between the molecular weight and elution volume is only valid under the specific conditions of the particular experiment. The conditions include, above all, the temperature, the solvent (or solvent mixture), the chromatography conditions and the separation column or system of columns.

The molecular weights of the sample determined in this way are relative values and are described as ‘polystyrene equivalent molecular weights’. This means that dependent on the structural and chemical differences between the sample and the standards, the molecular weights can deviate from the absolute values to a greater or a lesser degree. If other standards are used, e.g. polyethylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylic acid, the reason should be stated.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Both the molecular weight distribution of the sample and the average molecular weights (Mn, Mw) can be determined using GPC. GPC is a special type of liquid chromatography in which the sample is separated according to the hydrodynamic volumes of the individual constituents (2).

Separation is effected as the sample passes through a column which is filled with a porous material, typically an organic gel. Small molecules can penetrate the pores whereas large molecules are excluded. The path of the large molecules is thereby shorter and these are eluted first. The medium-sized molecules penetrate some of the pores and are eluted later. The smallest molecules, with a mean hydrodynamic radius smaller than the pores of the gel, can penetrate all of the pores. These are eluted last.

In an ideal situation, the separation is governed entirely by the size of the molecular species, but in practice it is difficult to avoid at least some absorption effects interfering. Uneven column packing and dead volumes can worsen the situation (2).

Detection is effected by e.g. refractive index or UV-absorption and yields a simple distribution curve. However, to attribute actual molecular weight values to the curve, it is necessary to calibrate the column by passing down polymers of known molecular weight and, ideally, of broadly similar structure, e.g. various polystyrene standards. Typically a Gaussian curve results, sometimes distorted by a small tail to the low molecular weight side, the vertical axis indicating the quantity, by weight, of the various molecular weight species eluted, and the horizontal axis the log molecular weight.

The low molecular weight content is derived from this curve. The calculation can only be accurate if the low molecular weight species respond equivalently on a per mass basis to the polymer as a whole.

1.5.   QUALITY CRITERIA

The repeatability (Relative Standard Deviation: RSD) of the elution volume should be better than 0,3  %. The required repeatability of the analysis has to be ensured by correction via an internal standard if a chromatogram is evaluated time-dependently and does not correspond to the above mentioned criterion (1). The polydispersities are dependent on the molecular weights of the standards. In the case of polystyrene standards typical values are:

(Mp is the molecular weight of the standard at the peak maximum)

1.6.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.6.1.   Preparation of the standard polystyrene solutions

The polystyrene standards are dissolved by careful mixing in the chosen eluent. The recommendations of the manufacturer must be taken into account in the preparation of the solutions.

The concentrations of the standards chosen are dependent on various factors, e.g. injection volume, viscosity of the solution and sensitivity of the analytical detector. The maximum injection volume must be adapted to the length of the column, in order to avoid overloading. Typical injection volumes for analytical separations using GPC with a column of 30 cm × 7,8  mm are normally between 40 and 100 μl. Higher volumes are possible, but they should not exceed 250 μl. The optimal ratio between the injection volume and the concentration must be determined prior to the actual calibration of the column.

1.6.2.   Preparation of the sample solution

In principle, the same requirements apply to the preparation of the sample solutions. The sample is dissolved in a suitable solvent, e.g. tetrahydrofuran (THF), by shaking carefully. Under no circumstances should it be dissolved using an ultrasonic bath. When necessary, the sample solution is purified via a membrane filter with a pore size of between 0,2 and 2 μm.

The presence of undissolved particles must be recorded in the final report as these may be due to high molecular weight species. An appropriate method should be used to determine the percentage by weight of the undissolved particles. The solutions should be used within 24 hours.

1.6.3.   Correction for content of impurities and additives

Correction of the content of species of M < 1 000 for the contribution from non-polymer specific components present (e.g. impurities and/or additives) is usually necessary, unless the measured content is already < 1 %. This is achieved by direct analysis of the polymer solution or the GPC eluate.

In cases where the eluate, after passage through the column, is too dilute for a further analysis it must be concentrated. It may be necessary to evaporate the eluate to dryness and dissolve it again. Concentration of the eluate must be effected under conditions which ensure that no changes occur in the eluate. The treatment of the eluate after the GPC step is dependent on the analytical method used for the quantitative determination.

1.6.4.   Apparatus

GPC apparatus comprises the following components:

It must be ensured that the GPC system is inert with regard to the utilised solvents (e.g. by the use of steel capillaries for THF solvent).

1.6.5.   Injection and solvent delivery system

A defined volume of the sample solution is loaded onto the column either using an auto-sampler or manually in a sharply defined zone. Withdrawing or depressing the plunger of the syringe too quickly, if done manually, can cause changes in the observed molecular weight distribution. The solvent-delivery system should, as far as possible, be pulsation-free ideally incorporating a pulse dampener. The flow rate is of the order of 1 ml/min.

1.6.6.   Column

Depending on the sample, the polymer is characterised using either a simple column or several columns connected in sequence. A number of porous column materials with defined properties (e.g. pore size, exclusion limits) are commercially available. Selection of the separation gel or the length of the column is dependent on both the properties of the sample (hydrodynamic volumes, molecular weight distribution) and the specific conditions for separation such as solvent, temperature and flow rate (1) (2) (3).

1.6.7.   Theoretical plates

The column or the combination of columns used for separation must be characterised by the number of theoretical plates. This involves, in the case of THF as elution solvent, loading a solution of ethyl benzene or other suitable non-polar solute onto a column of known length. The number of theoretical plates is given by the following equation:

where,

N

=

the number of theoretical plates

Ve

=

the elution volume at the peak maximum

W

=

the baseline peak width

W1/2

=

the peak width at half height

1.6.8.   Separation efficiency

In addition to the number of theoretical plates, which is a quantity determining the bandwidth, a part is also played by the separation efficiency, this being determined by the steepness of the calibration curve. The separation efficiency of a column is obtained from the following relationship:

where,

Ve, Mx

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with the molecular weight Mx

Ve,(10.Mx)

=

the elution volume for polystyrene with a ten times greater molecular weight

The resolution of the system is commonly defined as follows:

where,

Ve1, Ve2

=

the elution volumes of the two polystyrene standards at the peak maximum

W1, W2

=

the peak widths at the base-1ine

M1, M2

=

the molecular weights at the peak maximum (should differ by a factor of 10).

The R-value for the column system should be greater than 1,7 (4).

1.6.9.   Solvents

All solvents must be of high purity (for THF purity of 99,5  % is used). The solvent reservoir (if necessary in an inert gas atmosphere) must be sufficiently large for the calibration of the column and several sample analyses. The solvent must be degassed before it is transported to the column via the pump.

1.6.10.   Temperature control

The temperature of the critical internal components (injection loop, columns, detector and tubing) should be constant and consistent with the choice of solvent.

1.6.11.   Detector

The purpose of the detector is to record quantitatively the concentration of sample eluted from the column. In order to avoid unnecessary broadening of peaks the cuvette volume of the detector cell must be kept as small as possible. It should not be larger than 10 μl except for light scattering and viscosity detectors. Differential refractometry is usually used for detection. However, if required by the specific properties of the sample or the elution solvent, other types of detectors can be used, e.g. UV/VIS, IR, viscosity detectors, etc.

2.   DATA AND REPORTING

2.1.   DATA

The DIN Standard (1) should be referred to for the detailed evaluation criteria as well as for the requirements relating to the collecting and processing of data.

For each sample, two independent experiments must be carried out. They have to be analysed individually. In all cases it is essential to determine also data from blanks, treated under the same conditions as the sample.

It is necessary to indicate explicitly that the measured values are relative values equivalent to the molecular weights of the standard used.

After determination of the retention volumes or the retention times (possibly corrected using an internal standard), log Mp values (Mp being the peak maxima of the calibration standard) are plotted against one of those quantities. At least two calibration points are necessary per molecular weight decade, and at least five measurement points are required for the total curve, which should cover the estimated molecular weight of the sample. The low molecular weight end-point of the calibration curve is defined by n-hexyl benzene or another suitable non-polar solute. The portion of the curve corresponding to molecular weights below 1 000 is determined and corrected as necessary for impurities and additives. The elution curves are generally evaluated by means of electronic data processing. In case manual digitisation is used, ASTM D 3536-91 can be consulted (3).

If any insoluble polymer is retained on the column, its molecular weight is likely to be higher than that of the soluble fraction, and if not considered would result in an overestimation of the low molecular weight content. Guidance for correcting the low molecular weight content for insoluble polymer is provided in the Appendix.

The distribution curve must be provided in the form of a table or as figure (differential frequency or sum percentages against log M). In the graphic representation, one molecular weight decade should be normally about 4 cm in width and the peak maximum should be about 8 cm in height. In the case of integral distribution curves the difference in the ordinate between 0 and 100 % should be about 10 cm.

2.2.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information:

2.2.1.   Test substance:

2.2.2.   Instrumentation:

2.2.3.   Calibration of the system:

2.2.4.   Information on the low molecular weight polymer content:

2.2.5.   Evaluation:

3.   REFERENCES

Appendix

Guidance for correcting low molecular content for the presence of insoluble polymer

When insoluble polymer is present in a sample, it results in mass loss during the GPC analysis. The insoluble polymer is irreversibly retained on the column or sample filter while the soluble portion of the sample passes through the column. In the case where the refractive index increment (dn/dc) of the polymer can be estimated or measured, one can estimate the sample mass lost on the column. In that case, one makes a correction using an external calibration with standard materials of known concentration and dn/dc to calibrate the response of the refractometer. In the example hereafter a poly(methyl methacrylate) (pMMA) standard is used.

In the external calibration for analysis of acrylic polymers, a pMMA standard of known concentration in tetrahydrofuran, is analysed by GPC and the resulting data are used to find the refractometer constant according to the equation:

K = R/(C × V × dn/dc)

where:

K

=

the refractometer constant (in microvolt second/ml),

R

=

the response of the pMMA standard (in microvolt/second),

C

=

the concentration of the pMMA standard (in mg/ml),

V

=

the injection volume (in ml), and

dn/dc

=

the refractive index increment for pMMA in tetrahydrofuran (in ml/mg).

The following data are typical for a pMMA standard:

R

=

2 937 891

C

=

1,07  mg/ml

V

=

0,1  ml

dn/dc

=

9 × 10-5 ml/mg

The resulting K value, 3,05  × 1011 is then used to calculate the theoretical detector response if 100 % of the polymer injected had eluted through the detector.

A.20.   SOLUTION/EXTRACTION BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMERS IN WATER

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The full description of this test method has been deleted. The equivalent international test method, or other applicable test methods for the endpoint in question, appear in Table 1 of Part 0.

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A.21.   OXIDISING PROPERTIES (LIQUIDS)

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The full description of this test method has been deleted. The equivalent international test method, or other applicable test methods for the endpoint in question, appear in Table 1 of Part 0.

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A.22.   LENGTH WEIGHTED GEOMETRIC MEAN DIAMETER OF FIBRES

1.   METHOD

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

This method describes a procedure to measure the Length Weighted Geometric Mean Diameter (LWGMD) of bulk Man Made Mineral Fibres (MMMF). As the LWGMD of the population will have a 95 % probability of being between the 95 % confidence levels (LWGMD ± two standard errors) of the sample, the value reported (the test value) will be the lower 95 % confidence limit of the sample (i.e. LWGMD — 2 standard errors). The method is based on an update (June 1994) of a draft HSE industry procedure agreed at a meeting between ECFIA and HSE at Chester on 26/9/93 and developed for and from a second inter-laboratory trial (1, 2). This measurement method can be used to characterise the fibre diameter of bulk substances or products containing MMMFs including refractory ceramic fibres (RCF), man-made vitreous fibres (MMVF), crystalline and polycrystalline fibres.

Length weighting is a means of compensating for the effect on the diameter distribution caused by the breakage of long fibres when sampling or handling the material. Geometric statistics (geometric mean) are used to measure the size distribution of MMMF diameters because these diameters usually have size distributions that approximate to log normal.

Measuring length as well as diameter is both tedious and time consuming but, if only those fibres that touch an infinitely thin line on a SEM field of view are measured, then the probability of selecting a given fibre is proportional to its length. As this takes care of the length in the length weighting calculations, the only measurement required is the diameter and the LWGMD-2SE can be calculated as described.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS

Particle: An object with a length to width ratio of less than 3:1.

Fibre: An object with a length to with ratio (aspect ratio) of at least 3:1.

1.3.   SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The method is designed to look at diameter distributions which have median diameters from 0,5 μm to 6 μm. Larger diameters can be measured by using lower SEM magnifications but the method will be increasingly limited for finer fibre distributions and a TEM (transmission electron microscope) measurement is recommended if the median diameter is below 0,5 μm.

1.4.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

A number of representative core samples are taken from the fibre blanket or from loose bulk fibre. The bulk fibres are reduced in length using a crushing procedure and a representative sub-sample dispersed in water. Aliquots are extracted and filtered through a 0,2 μm pore size, polycarbonate filter and prepared for examination using scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques. The fibre diameters are measured at a screen magnification of × 10 000 or greater ( 1 ) using a line intercept method to give an unbiased estimate of the median diameter. The lower 95 % confidence interval (based on a one sided test) is calculated to give an estimate of the lowest value of the geometric mean fibre diameter of the material.

1.5.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.5.1.   Safety/precautions

Personal exposure to airborne fibres should be minimised and a fume cupboard or glove box should be used for handling the dry fibres. Periodic personal exposure monitoring should be carried out to determine the effectiveness of the control methods. When handling MMMF’s disposable gloves should be worn to reduce skin irritation and to prevent cross-contamination.

1.5.2.   Apparatus/equipment

1.5.3.   Test Procedure

1.5.3.1.   Sampling

For blankets and bats a 25 mm core sampler or cork borer is used to take samples of the cross-section. These should be equally spaced across the width of a small length of the blanket or taken from random areas if long lengths of the blanket are available. The same equipment can be used to extract random samples from loose fibre. Six samples should be taken when possible, to reflect spatial variations in the bulk material.

The six core samples should be crushed in a 50 mm diameter dye at 10 MPa. The material is mixed with spatula and re-pressed at 10 MPa. The material is then removed from the dye and stored in a sealed glass bottle.

1.5.3.2.   Sample Preparation

If necessary, organic binder can be removed by placing the fibre inside a furnace at 450 °C for about one hour.

Cone and quarter to subdivide the sample (this should be done inside a dust cupboard).

Using a spatula, add a small amount (< 0,5 g) of sample to 100 ml of freshly distilled water that has been filtered through a 0,2 μm membrane filter (alternative sources of ultra pure water may be used if they are shown to be satisfactory). Disperse thoroughly by the use of an ultrasonic probe operated at 100 W power and tuned so that cavitation occurs. (If a probe is not available use the following method: repeatedly shake and invert for 30 seconds; ultrasonic in a bench top ultrasonic bath for five minutes; then repeatedly shake and invert for a further 30 seconds.)

Immediately after dispersion of the fibre, remove a number of aliquots (e.g. three aliquots of 3, 6 and 10 ml) using a wide-mouthed pipette (2-5 ml capacity).

Vacuum filter each aliquot through a 0,2 μm polycarbonate filter supported by a 5 μm pore MEC backing filter, using a 25 mm glass filter funnel with a cylindrical reservoir. Approximately 5 ml of filtered distilled water should be placed into the funnel and the aliquot slowly pipetted into the water holding the pipette tip below the meniscus. The pipette and the reservoir must be flushed thoroughly after pipetting, as thin fibres have a tendency to be located more on the surface.

Carefully remove the filter and separate it from the backing filter before placing it in a container to dry.

Cut a quarter or half filter section of the filtered deposit with a type 24 scalpel blade using a rocking action. Carefully attach the cut section to a SEM stub using a sticky carbon tab or carbon glue. Silver dag should be applied in at least three positions to improve the electrical contact at the edges of the filter and the stub. When the glue/silver dag is dry, sputter coat approximately 50 nm of gold or gold/palladium onto the surface of the deposit.

1.5.3.3.   SEM calibration and operation

1.5.3.3.1.   Calibration

The SEM calibration should be checked at least once a week (ideally once a day) using a certified calibration grid. The calibration should be checked against a certified standard and if the measured value (SEM) is not within ± 2  % of the certified value, then the SEM calibration must be adjusted and re-checked.

The SEM should be capable of resolving at least a minimum visible diameter of 0,2 μm, using a real sample matrix, at a magnification of × 2 000 .

1.5.3.3.2.   Operation

The SEM should be operated at 10 000 magnification ( 2 ) using conditions that give good resolution with an acceptable image at slow scan rates of, for example, 5 seconds per frame. Although the operational requirements of different SEMs may vary, generally to obtain the best visibility and resolution, with relatively low atomic weight materials, accelerating voltages of 5-10 keV should be used with a small spot size setting and short working distance. As a linear traverse is being conducted, then a 0° tilt should be used to minimise re-focussing or, if the SEM has a eucentric stage, the eucentric working distance should be used. Lower magnification may be used if the material does not contain small (diameter) fibres and the fibre diameters are large (> 5 μm).

1.5.3.4.   Sizing

1.5.3.4.1.   Low magnification examination to assess the sample

Initially the sample should be examined at low magnification to look for evidence of clumping of large fibres and to assess the fibre density. In the event of excessive clumping it is recommended that a new sample is prepared.

For statistical accuracy it is necessary to measure a minimum number of fibres and high fibre density may seem desirable as examining empty fields is time consuming and does not contribute to the analysis. However, if the filter is overloaded, it becomes difficult to measure all the measurable fibres and, because small fibres may be obscured by larger ones, they may be missed.

Bias towards over estimating the LWGMD may result from fibre densities in excess of 150 fibres per millimetre of linear traverse. On the other hand, low fibre concentrations will increase the time of analysis and it is often cost effective to prepare a sample with a fibre density closer to the optimum than to persist with counts on low concentration filters. The optimum fibre density should give an average of about one or two countable fibre per fields of view at 5 000 magnification. Nevertheless the optimum density will depend on the size (diameter) of the fibres, so it is necessary that the operator uses some expert judgement in order to decide whether the fibre density is close to optimal or not.

1.5.3.4.2.   Length weighting of the fibre diameters

Only those fibres that touch (or cross) an (infinitely) thin line drawn on the screen of the SEM are counted. For this reason a horizontal (or vertical) line is drawn across the centre of the screen.

Alternatively a single point is placed at the centre of the screen and a continuous scan in one direction across the filter is initiated. Each fibre of aspect ratio grater than 3:1 touching or crossing this point has its diameter measured and recorded.

1.5.3.4.3.   Fibre sizing

It is recommended that a minimum of 300 fibres are measured. Each fibre is measured only once at the point of intersection with the line or point drawn on the image (or close to the point of intersection if the fibre edges are obscured). If fibres with non-uniform cross sections are encountered, a measurement representing the average diameter of the fibre should be used. Care should be taken in defining the edge and measuring the shortest distance between the fibre edges. Sizing may be done on line, or off-line on stored images or photographs. Semi-automated image measurement systems that download data directly into a spreadsheet are recommended, as they save time, eliminate transcription errors and calculations can be automated.

The ends of long fibres should be checked at low magnification to ensure that they do not curl back into the measurement field of view and are only measured once.

2.   DATA

2.1.   TREATMENT OF RESULTS

Fibre diameters do not usually have a normal distribution. However, by performing a log transformation it is possible to obtain a distribution that approximates to normal.

Calculate the arithmetic mean (mean lnD) and the standard deviation (SDlnD) of the log to base e values (lnD) of the n fibre diameters (D).

The standard deviation is divided by the square root of the number of measurements (n) to obtain the standard error (SElnD).

Subtract two times the standard error from the mean and calculate the exponential of this value (mean minus two standard errors) to give the geometric mean minus two geometric standard errors.

3.   REPORTING

TEST REPORT

The test report should include at least the following information:

4.   REFERENCES

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A.23.   PARTITION COEFFICIENT (1-OCTANOL/WATER): SLOW-STIRRING METHOD

INTRODUCTION

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Significance and use

Scope

DEFINITION AND UNITS

As a ratio of concentrations it is dimensionless. Most frequently it is given as the logarithm to the base 10 (log POW). POW is temperature dependent and reported data should include the temperature of the measurement.

PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

APPLICABILITY OF THE TEST

INFORMATION ON THE TEST SUBSTANCE

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

Equipment and apparatus

Preparation of the test solutions

Extraction and analysis of samples

Performance of the Test

Optimal 1-octanol/water volume ratios

Test conditions

Determination of the equilibration time

Starting the experiment

Sampling and Sample Treatment

DATA AND REPORTING

Treatment of the results

Demonstration of attainment of equilibrium

Log POW-calculation

Average log POW

The calculation is performed as follows:

where:

log POW,i

=

the log POW value of the individual experimental unit i;

log POW,Av

=

the weighted average value of the individual log POW determinations;

wi

=

the statistical weight assigned to the log POW value of the experimental unit i.

The reciprocal of the variance of log POW,i is employed as wi (
)

The symbol n stands for the number of experimental units.

Test Report

LITERATURE:

Appendix 1

Spreadsheet for computation of minimum volumes of water required for detection of test substances of different log POW values in aqueous phase

Assumptions:

Estimation of Sw

Estimation of Soct

Computation of volumes

Key to Computations

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 1 litre equilibration vessel.

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 2 litre equilibration vessel.

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 5 litre equilibration vessel.

Represents < 10 % of total volume of aqueous phase, 10 litre equilibration vessel.

Exceeds 10 % of even the 10 liter equilibration vessel.

Appendix 2

An example of glass-jacketed test vessel for the slow-stirring experiment for determination of POW

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A.24.   PARTITION COEFFICIENT (N-OCTANOL/WATER), HIGH PERFORMANCELIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC) METHOD

INTRODUCTION

This test method is equivalent to OECD test guideline (TG) 117 (2004)

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

where tR is the retention time of the test substance, and t0 is the dead-time, i.e. the average time a solvent molecule needs to pass the column. Quantitative analytical methods are not required and only the determination of retention times is necessary.

where

a, b

=

linear regression coefficients.

The equation above can be obtained by linearly regressing the log of octanol/water partition coefficients of reference substances against the log of capacity factors of the reference substances.

The weighed average log Pow is valid only for substances or mixtures (e.g. tall oils) consisting of homologues (e.g. series of alkanes). Mixtures can be measured with meaningful results, provided that the analytical detector used has the same sensitivity towards all the substances in the mixture and that they can be adequately resolved.

INFORMATION ON THE TEST SUBSTANCE

QUALITY CRITERIA

REFERENCE SUBSTANCES

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD

Preliminary estimate of the partition coefficient

Apparatus

Mobile phase

Solutes

Test conditions

Determination of dead time to

Regression Equation

DETERMINATION OF THE POW OF THE TEST SUBSTANCE

DATA AND REPORTING

Test report

LITERATURE

Appendix

POW calculation methods

INTRODUCTION

Principle of calculation methods

Reliability of calculated values

Fujita-Hansch π-method

πX = log Pow (PhX) – log Pow (PhH)

where PhX is an aromatic derivative and PhH the parent substance.

The π-method is primarily of interest for aromatic substances. π-values for a large number of substituents are available (4)(5).

Rekker method

where ai is the number of times a given fragment occurs in the molecule and fi is the log Pow increment of the fragment. The interaction terms can be expressed as an integral multiple of one single constant Cm (so-called ‘magic constant’). The fragment constants fi and Cm have been determined from a list of 1 054 experimental Pow values of 825 substances using multiple regression analysis (6)(8). The determination of the interaction terms is carried out according to set rules (6)(8)(9).

Hansch-Leo method

where fi is a fragment constant, Fj a correction term (factor), ai and bj the corresponding frequency of occurence. Lists of atomic and group fragmental values and of correction terms Fj were derived by trial and error from experimental Pow values. The correction terms have been divided into several different classes (1)(4). Sofware packages have been developed to take into account all the rules and correction terms (3).

COMBINED METHOD

Remarks:

LITERATURE ON CALCULATION METHODS

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A.25.   DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS IN WATER (TITRATION METHOD — SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHOD — CONDUCTOMETRIC METHOD)

INTRODUCTION

This test method is equivalent to OECD test guideline 112 (1981)

Prerequisites

Guidance information

Qualifying statements

Standard documents

This test method is based on methods given in the references listed in the section ‘Literature’ and on the Preliminary Draft Guidance for Premanufacture Notification EPA, August 18, 1978.

METHOD — INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE, SCOPE, RELEVANCE, APPLICATION AND LIMITS OF TEST

The dissociation of a substance in water is of importance in assessing its impact upon the environment. It governs the form of the substance which in turn determines its behaviour and transport. It may affect the adsorption of the chemical on soils and sediments and absorption into biological cells.

Definitions and units

Dissociation is the reversible splitting into two or more chemical species which may be ionic. The process is indicated generally by

RX⇌R ++ X –

and the concentration equilibrium constant governing the reaction is

For example, in the particular case where R is hydrogen (the substance is an acid), the constant is

or

Reference substances

The following reference substances need not be employed in all cases when investigating a new substance. They are provided primarily so that calibration of the method may be performed from time to time and to offer the chance to compare the results when another method is applied.

It would be useful to have a substance with several pKs as indicated in Principle of the method, below. Such a substance could be:

Principle of the test method

The chemical process described is generally only slightly temperature dependent in the environmentally relevant temperature range. The determination of the dissociation constant requires a measure of the concentrations of the dissociated and undissociated forms of the chemical substance. From the knowledge of the stoichiometry of the dissociation reaction indicated in Definitions and units, above, the appropriate constant can be determined. In the particular case described in this test method the substance is behaving as an acid or a base, and the determination is most conveniently done by determining the relative concentrations of the ionised and unionised forms of the substance and the pH of the solution. The relationship between these terms is given in the equation for pKa in Definitions and units, above. Some substances exhibit more than one dissociation constant and similar equations can be developed. Some of the methods described herein are also suitable for non-acid/base dissociation.

Quality criteria

Repeatability

The dissociation constant should be replicated (a minimum of three determinations) to within ± 0,1 log units.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST PROCEDURES

There are two basic approaches to the determination of pKa. One involves titrating a known amount of substance with standard acid or base, as appropriate; the other involves determining the relative concentration of the ionised and unionised forms and its pH dependence.

Preparations

Methods based on those principles may be classified as titration, spectrophotometric and conductometric procedures.

Test solutions

For the titration method and conductometric method the chemical substance should be dissolved in distilled water. For spectrophotometric and other methods buffer solutions are used. The concentration of the test substance should not exceed the lesser of 0,01 M or half the saturation concentration, and the purest available form of the substance should be employed in making up the solutions. If the substance is only sparingly soluble, it may be dissolved in a small amount of a water-miscible solvent prior to adding to the concentrations indicated above.

Solutions should be checked for the presence of emulsions using a Tyndall beam, especially if a co-solvent has been used to enhance solubility. Where buffer solutions are used, the buffer concentration should not exceed 0,05 M.

Test conditions

Temperature

The temperature should be controlled to at least ± 1 °C. The determination should preferably be carried out at 20 °C.

If a significant temperature dependence is suspected, the determination should be carried out at least at two other temperatures. The temperature intervals should be 10 °C in this case and the temperature control ± 0,1 °C.

Analyses

The method will be determined by the nature of the substance being tested. It must be sufficiently sensitive to allow the determination of the different species at each test solution concentration.

Performance of the test

Titration method

The test solution is determined by titration with the standard base or acid solution as appropriate, measuring the pH after each addition of titrant. At least 10 incremental additions should be made before the equivalence point. If equilibrium is reached sufficiently rapidly, a recording potentiometer may be used. For this method both the total quantity of substance and its concentration need to be accurately known. Precautions must be taken to exclude carbon dioxide. Details of procedure, precautions, and calculation are given in standard tests, e.g. references (1), (2), (3), (4).

Spectrophotometric method

A wavelength is found where the ionised and unionised forms of the substance have appreciably different extinction coefficients. The UV/VIS absorption spectrum is obtained from solutions of constant concentration under a pH condition where the substance is essentially unionised and fully ionised and at several intermediate pHs. This may be done, either by adding increments of concentrated acid (base) to a relatively large volume of a solution of the substance in a multicomponent buffer, initially at high (low) pH (ref. 5), or by adding equal volumes of a stock solution of the substance in e.g. water, methanol, to constant volumes of various buffer solutions covering the desired pH range. From the pH and absorbance values at the chosen wavelength, a sufficient number of values for the pKa is calculated using data from at least 5 pHs where the substance is at least 10 per cent and less than 90 per cent ionised. Further experimental details and method of calculation are given in reference (1).

Conductometric method

Using a cell of small, known cell constant, the conductivity of an approximately 0,1 M solution of the substance in conductivity water is measured. The conductivities of a number of accurately-made dilutions of this solution are also measured. The concentration is halved each time, and the series should cover at least an order of magnitude in concentration. The limiting conductivity at infinite dilution is found by carrying out a similar experiment with the Na salt and extrapolating. The degree of dissociation may then be calculated from the conductivity of each solution using the Onsager equation, and hence using the Ostwald Dilution Law the dissociation constant may be calculated as K = α2C/(1 – α) where C is the concentration in moles per litre and α is the fraction dissociated. Precautions must be taken to exclude CO2. Further experimental details and method of calculation are given in standard texts and references (1), (6) and (7).

DATA AND REPORTING

Treatment of results

Titration method

The pKa is calculated for 10 measured points on the titration curve. The mean and standard deviation of such pKa values are calculated. A plot of pH versus volume of standard base or acid should be included along with a tabular presentation.

Spectrophotometric methods

The absorbance and pH are tabulated from each spectrum. At least five values for the pKa are calculated from the intermediate spectra data points, and the mean and standard deviation of these results are also calculated.

Conductometric method

The equivalent conductivity Λ is calculated for each acid concentration and for each concentration of a mixture of one equivalent of acid, plus 0,98 equivalent of carbonate-free sodium hydroxide. The acid is in excess to prevent an excess of OH– due to hydrolysis. 1/Λ is plotted against √C and Λo of the salt can be found by extrapolation to zero concentration.

Λo of the acid can be calculated using literature values for H+ and Na+. The pKa can be calculated from α = Λi/Λo and Ka = α2C/(1 – α) for each concentration. Better values for Ka can be obtained by making corrections for mobility and activity. The mean and standard deviations of the pKa values should be calculated.

Test report

All raw data and calculated pKa values should be submitted together with the method of calculation (preferably in a tabulated format, such as suggested in ref. 1) as should the statistical parameters described above. For titration methods, details of the standardisation of titrants should be given.

For the spectrophotometric method, all spectra should be submitted. For the conductometric method, details of the cell constant determination should be reported. Information on technique used, analytical methods and the nature of any buffers used should be given.

The test temperature(s) should be reported.

LITERATURE:

▼B

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PART B: METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF TOXICITY AND OTHER HEALTH EFFECTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
	GENERAL INTRODUCTION
B.1 bis.	ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY — FIXED DOSE PROCEDURE
B.1 tris.	ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY — ACUTE TOXIC CLASS METHOD
B.2.	ACUTE INHALATION TOXICITY
B.3.	ACUTE TOXICITY (DERMAL)
B.4.	ACUTE DERMAL IRRITATION/CORROSION
B.5.	ACUTE EYE IRRITATION/CORROSION
B.6.	SKIN SENSITISATION
B.7.	REPEATED DOSE 28-DAY ORAL TOXICITY STUDY IN RODENTS
B.8.	SUBACUTE INHALATION TOXICITY: 28-DAY STUDY
B.9.	REPEATED DOSE (28 DAYS) TOXICITY (DERMAL)
B.10.	IN VITRO MAMMALIAN CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATION TEST
B.11.	MAMMALIAN BONE MARROW CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATION TEST
B.12.	MAMMALIAN ERYTHROCYTE MICRONUCLEUS TEST
B.13/14.	MUTAGENICITY: REVERSE MUTATION TEST USING BACTERIA
B.17.	IN VITRO MAMMALIAN CELL GENE MUTATION TESTS USING THE HPRT AND XPRT GENES
B.21.	IN VITRO MAMMALIAN CELL TRANSFORMATION TESTS
B.22.	RODENT DOMINANT LETHAL TEST
B.23.	MAMMALIAN SPERMATOGONIAL CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATION TEST
B.25.	MOUSE HERITABLE TRANSLOCATION
B.26.	SUB-CHRONIC ORAL TOXICITY TEST REPEATED DOSE 90 — DAY ORAL TOXICITY STUDY IN RODENTS
B.27.	SUB-CHRONIC ORAL TOXICITY TEST REPEATED DOSE 90 — DAY ORAL TOXICITY STUDY IN NON-RODENTS
B.28.	SUB-CHRONIC DERMAL TOXICITY STUDY 90-DAY REPEATED DERMAL DOSE STUDY USING RODENT SPECIES
B.29.	SUBCHRONIC INHALATION TOXICITY: 90-DAY STUDY
B.30.	CHRONIC TOXICITY STUDIES
B.31.	PRENATAL DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY STUDY
B.32.	CARCINOGENICITY STUDIES
B.33.	COMBINED CHRONIC TOXICITY/CARCINOGENICITY STUDIES
B.34.	ONE-GENERATION REPRODUCTION TOXICITY TEST
B.35.	TWO-GENERATION REPRODUCTION TOXICITY STUDY
B.36.	TOXICOKINETICS
B.37.	DELAYED NEUROTOXICITY OF ORGANOPHOSPHORUS SUBSTANCES FOLLOWING ACUTE EXPOSURE
B.38.	DELAYED NEUROTOXICITY OF ORGANOPHOSPHORUS SUBSTANCES 28 DAY REPEATED DOSE STUDY
B.39.	UNSCHEDULED DNA SYNTHESIS (UDS) TEST WITH MAMMALIAN LIVER CELLS IN VIVO
B.40.	IN VITRO SKIN CORROSION: TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE TEST METHOD (TER)
B.40 BIS.	IN VITRO SKIN CORROSION: RECONSTRUCTED HUMAN EPIDERMIS (RhE) TEST METHOD
B.41.	IN VITRO 3T3 NRU PHOTOTOXICITY TEST
B.42.	SKIN SENSITISATION: LOCAL LYMPH NODE ASSAY
B.43.	NEUROTOXICITY STUDY IN RODENTS
B.44.	SKIN ABSORPTION: IN VIVO METHOD
B.45.	SKIN ABSORPTION: IN VITRO METHOD
B.46.	IN VITRO SKIN IRRITATION: RECONSTRUCTED HUMAN EPIDERMIS TEST METHOD
B.47.	BOVINE CORNEAL OPACITY AND PERMEABILITY TEST METHOD FOR IDENTIFYING (I) CHEMICALS INDUCING SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE AND (II) CHEMICALS NOT REQUIRING CLASSIFICATION FOR EYE IRRITATION OR SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE
B.48.	ISOLATED CHICKEN EYE TEST METHOD FOR IDENTIFYING I) CHEMICALS INDUCING SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE AND II) CHEMICALS NOT REQUIRING CLASSIFICATION FOR EYE IRRITATION OR SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE
B.49.	IN VITRO MAMMALIAN CELL MICRONUCLEUS TEST
B.50.	SKIN SENSITISATION: LOCAL LYMPH NODE ASSAY: DA
B.51.	SKIN SENSITISATION: LOCAL LYMPH NODE ASSAY: BrdU-ELISA
B.52.	ACUTE INHALATION TOXICITY — ACUTE TOXIC CLASS METHOD
B.53.	DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROTOXICITY STUDY
B.54.	UTEROTROPHIC BIOASSAY IN RODENTS: A SHORT-TERM SCREENING TEST FOR OESTROGENIC PROPERTIES
B.55.	HERSHBERGER BIOASSAY IN RATS: A SHORT-TERM SCREENING ASSAY FOR (ANTI)ANDROGENIC PROPERTIES
B.56.	EXTENDED ONE-GENERATION REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY STUDY
B.57.	H295R STEROIDOGENESIS ASSAY
B.58.	TRANSGENIC RODENT SOMATIC AND GERM CELL GENE MUTATION ASSAYS
B.59.	IN CHEMICO SKIN SENSITISATION: DIRECT PEPTIDE REACTIVITY ASSAY (DPRA)
B.60.	IN VITRO SKIN SENSITISATION: ARE-NRF2 LUCIFERASE TEST METHOD
B.61.	FLUORESCEIN LEAKAGE TEST METHOD FOR IDENTIFYING OCULAR CORROSIVES AND SEVERE IRRITANTS
B.62.	IN VIVO MAMMALIAN ALKALINE COMET ASSAY
B.63.	REPRODUCTION/DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY SCREENING TEST
B.64.	COMBINED REPEATED DOSE TOXICITY STUDY WITH THE REPRODUCTION/DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY SCREENING TEST
B.65.	IN VITRO MEMBRANE BARRIER TEST METHOD FOR SKIN CORROSION
B.66.	STABLY TRANSFECTED TRANSACTIVATION IN VITRO ASSAYS TO DETECT ESTROGEN RECEPTOR AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
B.67.	IN VITRO MAMMALIAN CELL GENE MUTATION TESTS USING THE THYMIDINE KINASE GENE
B.68.	SHORT TIME EXPOSURE IN VITRO TEST METHOD FOR IDENTIFYING i) CHEMICALS INDUCING SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE AND ii) CHEMICALS NOT REQUIRING CLASSIFICATION FOR EYE IRRITATION OR SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE
B.69.	RECONSTRUCTED HUMAN CORNEA-LIKE EPITHELIUM (RhCE) TEST METHOD FOR IDENTIFYING CHEMICALS NOT REQUIRING CLASSIFICATION AND LABELLING FOR EYE IRRITATION OR SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE
B.70.	HUMAN RECOMBINANT ESTROGEN RECEPTOR (hrER) IN VITRO ASSAYS TO DETECT CHEMICALS WITH ER BINDING AFFINITY
B.71.	IN VITRO SKIN SENSITISATION ASSAYS ADDRESSING THE KEY EVENT ON ACTIVATION OF DENDRITIC CELLS ON THE ADVERSE OUTCOME PATHWAY (AOP) FOR SKIN SENSITISATION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

A.   CHARACTERISATION OF THE TEST SUBSTANCE

The composition of the test substance, including major impurities, and its relevant physico-chemical properties including stability, should be known prior to the initiation of any toxicity study.

The physico-chemical properties of the test substance provide important information for the selection of the route of administration, the design of each particular study and the handling and storage of the test substance.

The development of an analytical method for qualitative and quantitative determination of the test substance (including major impurities when possible) in the dosing medium and the biological material should precede the initiation of the study.

All information relating to the identification, the physico-chemical properties, the purity, and behaviour of the test substance should be included in the test report.

B.   ANIMAL CARE

Stringent control of environmental conditions and proper animal care techniques are essential in toxicity testing.

(i)   Housing conditions

The environmental conditions in the experimental animal rooms or enclosures should be appropriate to the test species. For rats, mice and guinea pigs, suitable conditions are a room temperature of 22 oC ± 3 oC with a relative humidity of 30 to 70 %; for rabbits the temperature should be 20 ± 3 oC with a relative humidity of 30 to 70 %.

Some experimental techniques are particularly sensitive to temperature effects and, in these cases, details of appropriate conditions are included in the description of the test method. In all investigations of toxic effects, the temperature and humidity should be monitored, recorded, and included in the final report of the study.

Lighting should be artificial, the sequence being 12 hours light, 12 hours dark. Details of the lighting pattern should be recorded and included in the final report of the study.

Unless otherwise specified in the method, animals may be housed individually, or be caged in small groups of the same sex; for group caging, no more than five animals should be housed per cage.

In reports of animal experiments, it is important to indicate the type of caging used and the number of animals housed in each cage both during exposure to the chemical and any subsequent observation period.

(ii)   Feeding conditions

Diets should meet all the nutritional requirements of the species under test. Where test substances are administered to animals in their diet the nutritional value may be reduced by interaction between the substance and a dietary constituent. The possibility of such a reaction should be considered when interpreting the results of tests. Conventional laboratory diets may be used with an unlimited supply of drinking water. The choice of the diet may be influenced by the need to ensure a suitable admixture of a test substance when administered by this method.

Dietary contaminants which are known to influence the toxicity should not be present in interfering concentrations.

C.   ALTERNATIVE TESTING

The European Union is committed to promoting the development and validation of alternative techniques which can provide the same level of information as current animal tests, but which use fewer animals, cause less suffering or avoid the use of animals completely.

Such methods, as they become available, must be considered wherever possible for hazard characterisation and consequent classification and labelling for intrinsic hazards and chemical safety assessment.

D.   EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION

When tests are evaluated and interpreted, limitations in the extent to which the results of animal and in vitro studies can be extrapolated directly to man must be considered and therefore, evidence of adverse effects in humans, where available, may be used for confirmation of testing results.

E.   LITERATURE REFERENCES

Most of these methods are developed within the framework of the OECD programme for Testing Guidelines, and should be performed in conformity with the principles of Good Laboratory Practice, in order to ensure as wide as possible ‘mutual acceptance of data’.

Additional information may be found in the references listed in the OECD guidelines and the relevant literature published elsewhere.

B.1 bis.   ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY — FIXED DOSE PROCEDURE

1.   METHOD

This test method is equivalent to OECD TG 420 (2001)

1.1.   INTRODUCTION

Traditional methods for assessing acute toxicity use death of animals as an endpoint. In 1984, a new approach to acute toxicity testing was suggested by the British Toxicology Society based on the administration at a series of fixed dose levels (1). The approach avoided using death of animals as an endpoint, and relied instead on the observation of clear signs of toxicity at one of a series of fixed dose levels. Following UK (2) and international (3) in vivo validation studies the procedure was adopted as a testing method in 1992. Subsequently, the statistical properties of the Fixed Dose Procedure have been evaluated using mathematical models in a series of studies (4)(5)(6). Together, the in vivo and modelling studies have demonstrated that the procedure is reproducible, uses fewer animals and causes less suffering than the traditional methods and is able to rank substances in a similar manner to the other acute toxicity testing methods.

Guidance on the selection of the most appropriate test method for a given purpose can be found in the Guidance Document on Acute Oral Toxicity Testing (7). This guidance document also contains additional information on the conduct and interpretation of Testing Method B.1bis.

It is a principle of the method that in the main study only moderately toxic doses are used, and that administration of doses that are expected to be lethal should be avoided. Also, doses that are known to cause marked pain and distress, due to corrosive or severely irritant actions, need not be administered. Moribund animals, or animals obviously in pain or showing signs of severe and enduring distress shall be humanely killed, and are considered in the interpretation of the test results in the same way as animals that died on test. Criteria for making the decision to kill moribund or severely suffering animals, and guidance on the recognition of predictable or impending death, are the subject of a separate Guidance Document (8).

The method provides information on the hazardous properties and allows the substance to be ranked and classified according to the Globally Harmonised System (GHS) for the classification of chemicals which cause acute toxicity (9).

The testing laboratory should consider all available information on the test substance prior to conducting the study. Such information will include the identity and chemical structure of the substance; its physico-chemical properties; the results of any other in vitro or in vivo toxicity tests on the substance; toxicological data on structurally related substances; and the anticipated use(s) of the substance. This information is necessary to satisfy all concerned that the test is relevant for the protection of human health, and will help in the selection of an appropriate starting dose.

1.2.   DEFINITIONS

Acute oral toxicity: refers to those adverse effects occurring following oral administration of a single dose of a substance or multiple doses given within 24 hours.

Delayed death: means that an animal does not die or appear moribund within 48 hours but dies later during the 14-day observation period.

Dose: is the amount of test substance administered. Dose is expressed as weight of test substance per unit weight of test animal (e.g. mg/kg).

Evident toxicity: is a general term describing clear signs of toxicity following the administration of test substance (see (3) for examples) such that at the next highest fixed dose either severe pain and enduring signs of severe distress, moribund status (criteria are presented in the Humane Endpoints Guidance Document (8)), or probable mortality in most animals can be expected.

GHS: Globally Harmonised Classification System for Chemical Substances and Mixtures. A joint activity of OECD (human health and the environment), UN Committee of Experts on Transport of Dangerous Goods (physical-chemical properties) and ILO (hazard communication) and coordinated by the Interorganisation Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC).

Impending death: when moribund state or death is expected prior to the next planned time of observation. Signs indicative of this state in rodents could include convulsions, lateral position, recumbence and tremor. (See the Humane Endpoint Guidance Document (8) for more details).

LD 50 (median lethal dose): is a statistically derived single dose of a substance that can be expected to cause death in 50 % of animals when administered by the oral route. The LD 50 value is expressed in terms of weight of test substance per unit weight of test animal (mg/kg).

Limit dose: refers to a dose at an upper limitation on testing (2 000 or 5 000 mg/kg).

Moribund status: being in a state of dying or inability to survive, even if treated. (See the Humane Endpoint Guidance Document (8) for more details).

Predictable death: presence of clinical signs indicative of death at a known time in the future before the planned end of the experiment, for example: inability to reach water or food. (See the Humane Endpoint Guidance Document (8) for more details).

1.3.   PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST METHOD

Groups of animals of a single sex are dosed in a stepwise procedure using the fixed doses of 5, 50, 300 and 2 000 mg/kg (exceptionally an additional fixed dose of 5 000 mg/kg may be considered, see Section 1.6.2). The initial dose level is selected on the basis of a sighting study as the dose expected to produce some signs of toxicity without causing severe toxic effects or mortality. Clinical signs and conditions associated with pain, suffering, and impending death, are described in detail in a separate OECD Guidance Document (8). Further groups of animals may be dosed at higher or lower fixed doses, depending on the presence or absence of signs of toxicity or mortality. This procedure continues until the dose causing evident toxicity or no more than one death is identified, or when no effects are seen at the highest dose or when deaths occur at the lowest dose.

1.4.   DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST METHOD

1.4.1.   Selection of animal species

The preferred rodent species is the rat, although other rodent species may be used. Normally females are used (7). This is because literature surveys of conventional LD50 tests show that usually there is little difference in sensitivity between the sexes, but in those cases where differences are observed, females are generally slightly more sensitive (10). However, if knowledge of the toxicological or toxicokinetic properties of structurally related chemicals indicates that males are likely to be more sensitive then this sex should be used. When the test is conducted in males, adequate justification should be provided.

Healthy young adult animals of commonly used laboratory strains should be employed. Females should be nulliparous and non-pregnant. Each animal, at the commencement of its dosing, should be between eight and 12 weeks old and its weight should fall in an interval within ± 20 % of the mean weight of any previously dosed animals.

1.4.2.   Housing and feeding conditions

The temperature of the experimental animal room should be 22 oC (± 3 oC). Although the relative humidity should be at least 30 % and preferably not exceed 70 % other than during room cleaning the aim should be 50-60 %. Lighting should be artificial, the sequence being 12 hours light, 12 hours dark. For feeding, conventional laboratory diets may be used with an unlimited supply of drinking water. Animals may be group-caged by dose, but the number of animals per cage must not interfere with clear observations of each animal.

1.4.3.   Preparation of animals

The animals are randomly selected, marked to permit individual identification, and kept in their cages for at least five days prior to the start of dosing to allow for acclimatisation to the laboratory conditions.

1.4.4.   Preparation of doses

In general test substances should be administered in a constant volume over the range of doses to be tested by varying the concentration of the dosing preparation. Where a liquid end product or mixture is to be tested however, the use of the undiluted test substance, i.e. at a constant concentration, may be more relevant to the subsequent risk assessment of that substance, and is a requirement of some regulatory authorities. In either case, the maximum dose volume for administration must not be exceeded. The maximum volume of liquid that can be administered at one time depends on the size of the test animal. In rodents, the volume should not normally exceed 1ml /100 g of body weight: however in the case of aqueous solutions 2 ml/100 g body weight can be considered. With respect to the formulation of the dosing preparation, the use of an aqueous solution/suspension/emulsion is recommended wherever possible, followed in order of preference by a solution/suspension/emulsion in oil (e.g. corn oil) and then possibly solution in other vehicles. For vehicles other than water the toxicological characteristics of the vehicle should be known. Doses must be prepared shortly prior to administration unless the stability of the preparation over the period during which it will be used is known and shown to be acceptable.

1.5.   PROCEDURE

1.5.1.   Administration of doses

The test substance is administered in a single dose by gavage using a stomach tube or a suitable intubation canula. In the unusual circumstance that a single dose is not possible, the dose may be given in smaller fractions over a period not exceeding 24 hours.

Animals should be fasted prior to dosing (e.g. with the rat, food but not water should be withheld over-night; with the mouse, food but not water should be withheld for three to four hours). Following the period of fasting, the animals should be weighed and the test substance administered. After the substance has been administered, food may be withheld for a further three to four hours in rats or one to two hours in mice. Where a dose is administered in fractions over a period of time, it may be necessary to provide the animals with food and water depending on the length of the period.

1.5.2.   Sighting study

The purpose of the sighting study is to allow selection of the appropriate starting dose for the main study. The test substance is administered to single animals in a sequential manner following the flowcharts in Appendix 1. The sighting study is completed when a decision on the starting dose for the main study can be made (or if a death is seen at the lowest fixed dose).

The starting dose for the sighting study is selected from the fixed dose levels of 5, 50, 300 and 2 000 mg/kg as a dose expected to produce evident toxicity based, when possible, on evidence from in vivo and in vitro data from the same chemical and from structurally related chemicals. In the absence of such information, the starting dose will be 300 mg/kg.

A period of at least 24 hours will be allowed between the dosing of each animal. All animals should be observed for at least 14 days.

Exceptionally, and only when justified by specific regulatory needs, the use of an additional upper fixed dose level of 5 000 mg/kg may be considered (see Appendix 3). For reasons of animal welfare concern, testing of animals in GHS Category 5 ranges (2 000 -5 000 mg/kg is discouraged and should only be considered when there is a strong likelihood that the results of such a test have a direct relevance for protecting human or animal health or the environment.

In cases where an animal tested at the lowest fixed dose level (5 mg/kg) in the sighting study dies, the normal procedure is to terminate the study and assign the substance to GHS Category 1 (as shown in Appendix 1). However, if further confirmation of the classification is required, an optional supplementary procedure may be conducted, as follows. A second animal is dosed at 5 mg/kg. If this second animal dies, then GHS Category 1 will be confirmed and the study will be immediately terminated. If the second animal survives, then a maximum of three additional animals will be dosed at 5 mg/kg. Because there will be a high risk of mortality, these animals should be dosed in a sequential manner to protect animal welfare. The time interval between dosing each animal should be sufficient to establish that the previous animal is likely to survive. If a second death occurs, the dosing sequence will be immediately terminated and no further animals will be dosed. Because the occurrence of a second death (irrespective of the number of animals tested at the time of termination) falls into outcome A (two or more deaths), the classification rule of Appendix 2 at the 5 mg/kg fixed dose is followed (Category 1 if there are two or more deaths or Category 2 if there is no more than one death). In addition, Appendix 4 gives guidance on the classification in the EU system until the new GHS is implemented.

1.5.3.   Main study

1.5.3.1.   Numbers of animals and dose levels

The action to be taken following testing at the starting dose level is indicated by the flowcharts in Appendix 2. One of three actions will be required; either stop testing and assign the appropriate hazard classification class, test at a higher fixed dose or test at a lower fixed dose. However, to protect animals, a dose level that caused death in the sighting study will not be revisited in the main study (see Appendix 2). Experience has shown that the most likely outcome at the starting dose level will be that the substance can be classified and no further testing will be necessary.

A total of five animals of one sex will normally be used for each dose level investigated. The five animals will be made up of one animal from the sighting study dosed at the selected dose level together with an additional four animals (except, unusually, if a dose level used on the main study was not included in the sighting study).

The time interval between dosing at each level is determined by the onset, duration, and severity of toxic signs. Treatment of animals at the next dose should be delayed until one is confident of survival of the previously dosed animals. A period of three or four days between dosing at each dose level is recommended, if needed, to allow for the observation of delayed toxicity. The time interval may be adjusted as appropriate, e.g. in case of inconclusive response.

When the use of an upper fixed dose of 5 000 mg/kg is considered, the procedure outlined in Appendix 3 should be followed (see also section 1.6.2).

1.5.3.2.   Limit test

The limit test is primarily used in situations where the experimenter has information indicating that the test material is likely to be nontoxic, i.e., having toxicity only above regulatory limit doses. Information about the toxicity of the test material can be gained from knowledge about similar tested compounds or similar tested mixtures or products, taking into consideration the identity and percentage of components known to be of toxicological significance. In those situations where there is little or no information about its toxicity, or in which the test material is expected to be toxic, the main test should be performed.

Using the normal procedure, a sighting study starting dose of 2 000 mg/kg (or exceptionally 5 000 mg/kg) followed by dosing of a further four animals at this level serves as a limit test for this guideline.

1.6.   OBSERVATIONS

Animals are observed individually after dosing at least once during the first 30 minutes, periodically during the first 24 hours, with special attention given during the first four hours, and daily thereafter, for a total of 14 days, except where they need to be removed from the study and humanely killed for animal welfare reasons or are found dead. However, the duration of observation should not be fixed rigidly. It should be determined by the toxic reactions, time of onset and length of recovery period, and may thus be extended when considered necessary. The times at which signs of toxicity appear and disappear are important, especially if there is a tendency for toxic signs to be delayed (11). All observations are systematically recorded, with individual records being maintained for each animal.

Additional observations will be necessary if the animals continue to display signs of toxicity. Observations should include changes in skin and fur, eyes and mucous membranes, and also respiratory, circulatory, autonomic and central nervous systems, and somatomotor activity and behaviour pattern. Attention should be directed to observations of tremors, convulsions, salivation, diarrhoea, lethargy, sleep and coma. The principles and criteria summarised in the Humane Endpoints Guidance Document should be taken into consideration (8). Animals found in a moribund condition and animals showing severe pain or enduring signs of severe distress should be humanely killed. When animals are killed for humane reasons or found dead, the time of death should be recorded as precisely as possible.

1.6.1.   Body weight

Individual weights of animals should be determined shortly before the test substance is administered and at least weekly thereafter. Weight changes should be calculated and recorded. At the end of the test surviving animals are weighed and then humanely killed.

1.6.2.   Pathology

All test animals (including those that die during the test or are removed from the study for animal welfare reasons) should be subjected to gross necropsy. All gross pathological changes should be recorded for each animal. Microscopic examination of organs showing evidence of gross pathology in animals surviving 24 or more hours after the initial dosing may also be considered because it may yield useful information.

2.   DATA

Individual animal data should be provided. Additionally, all data should be summarised in tabular form, showing for each test group the number of animals used, the number of animals displaying signs of toxicity, the number of animals found dead during the test or killed for humane reasons, time of death of individual animals, a description and the time course of toxic effects and reversibility, and necropsy findings.

3.   REPORTING

3.1.   TEST REPORT

The test report must include the following information, as appropriate:

4.   REFERENCES

Appendix 1

FLOW CHART FOR THE SIGHTING STUDY

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